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TYPOGRAPHIC   TECHNICAL  SERIES   FOR  APPRENTICES  —  PART  VIII,   NO.   53 

A  BRIEF  HISTORY 
of  ' 
PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  PRINTING 

IN  ENGLAND  FROM  CAXTON 

TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME 

BY 
FREDERICK  W.  HAMILTON,  LL.D. 


EDUCATIONAL   DIRECTOR 
UNITED    TYPOTHETyE   OF    AMERICA 


PUBLISHED    BY    THE    COMMITTEE    ON    EDUCATION 
UNITED    TYPOTHETAE    OF    AMERICA 

1918 


Copyright,  1918 

United  Typothetae  of  America 

Chicago.  III. 


Composition  and  electrotypes  contributed  by 

J  P..  LirriNcoTT  Company 

Philadelphia 


PREFACE 

THE  treatment  of  the  material  used  in  this  volume 
will  be  found  somewhat  different  from  that 
adopted  in  the  two  preceding.  The  narrower  field 
of  inquiry  makes  possible  a  closer  following  of  the 
ordinary  chronological  method  *of  arrangement  rather 
than  the  topical  method  of  the  other  volumes.  An 
attempt  is  made  to  trace  the  history  of  printing  in  Eng- 
land through  the  centuries  from  Caxton  to  Morris  and 
to  include  some  insight  into  legal  regulations,  trade 
conditions,  and  industrial  development  generally.  As 
before,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  this  is  a  primer,  a 
book  of  introductions.  No  attempt,  therefore,  is  made 
to  go  far  into  details  or  to  discuss  disputed  points  or  to 
include  any  considerable  amount  of  technical  detail.  It 
is  hoped  that  the  reader  will  get  a  comprehensive  view 
of  the  subject,  will  feel  its  human  interest,  and  will 
catch  some  glimpse  of  its  larger  relation  to  the  general 
history  of  the  time. 

The  writer  has  consulted  a  considerable  range  of 
authorities,  a  few  of  the  more  accessible  of  which  are 
cited  in  the  short  list  of  books  for  supplementary  read- 
ing. Mention  should  be  made  of  the  very  excellent 
study  of  John  Baskerville,  privately  printed  by  Col. 
Josiah  H.  Benton,  of  Boston.  This  book  may  perhaps 
be  found  in  the  larger  public  libraries.  Here,  as  always, 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  although  much  has  been  writ- 
ten on  the  subject  of  printing  and  of  the  history  of 
printing  a  good  general  history  of  the  subject  is  still 
greatly  to  be  desired. 

3 


JO 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  I  page 

The  English  Pioneers ...       7 

Chapter  II 

The    Regulation  of   the   Industry  and   the  Company  of 

Stationers 18 

Chapter  III 
John  Day  and  the  Dark  Ages  of  English  Printing    ...     34 

Chapter  IV 
The  Eighteenth  Century:  the  Period  of  Transition    .     .     49 

Chapter  V 
The  Whittinghams  and  the  Modern  Book    ...  .     .     68 

Supplementary  Reading       76 

Review  Questions „ 77 


PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

CHAPTER  I 

The  English  Pioneers 

"GANGLAND  was  slow  to  take  up  printing  and  slow 
-■— >  and  backward  in  the  development  of  it.  It  was 
25  years  after  the  invention  of  printing  before  any 
printing  was  done  in  England.  It  was  many  years 
after  that  before  the  work  of  the  English  printers  could 
compare  with  that  done  on  the  continent.  The  reason 
for  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  conditions  of  the  country 
itself.  Although  the  two  great  universities  had  long 
been  in  existence,  Oxford  dating  back  to  1 167  and  Cam- 
bridge to  1209,  England  as  a  whole  was  a  backward 
country.  In  culture  and  the  refinements  of  civilization, 
as  well  as  in  many  more  practical  things,  England  was 
not  so  far  advanced  as  the  rest  of  Europe  ncr  was  it  to 
be  so  for  many  years  to  come. 

England  at  this  time  was  an  agricultural  and  grazing 
country.  A  colony  of  Flemings  had  been  brought  over 
to  start  the  cloth  industry.  There  was  still,  neverthe- 
less, a  large  export  of  wool  to  Flanders,  which  was  there 
woven  and  sent  back  as  cloth.  The  English  nobles 
lived  largely  on  their  estates,  looking  after  their  ten- 
ants, hunting  for  diversion,  and  doing  a  little  fighting 
occasionally  when  life  became  otherwise  unbearably 
uninteresting.  They  were  not  an  educated  class  and 
the  peasantry  were  profoundly  ignorant.  The  cities 
which,  as  always,  depended  upon  manufacture  and  com- 
merce were  just  beginning  to  grow,  with  the  exception 

7 


PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 


of  some  of  the  seaport  towns  which  were  already  pros- 
perous and  wealthy. 

Not  only  was  this  general  condition  true,  but  there 
were  special  conditions  which  rendered  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century  unfavorable  to  culture  and  to  the 
introduction  of  a  new  invention  auxiliary  to  culture. 
In  1450  England  was  shaken  and  horrified  by  the  bloody 
insurrection  of  peasants,  with  its  attendant  outrages, 
known  as  Jack  Cade's  Revolt.  Scarcely  had  order  been 
restored  when  a  disputed  succession  to  the  crown 
plunged  the  country  into  the  bloody  civil  war  between 
the  adherents  of  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster, 
known  as  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  This  period  of  civil 
strife  lasted  for  thirty  years  and  affected  the  general 
welfare  of  England  very  seriously.  It  was  especially 
marked  by  mortality  among  the  noblest  families  in  the 
realm,  many  of  which  were  actually  exterminated. 

Some  time  within  this  bloody  half-century  the  art  of 
printing  was  introduced  into  England.  There  is  in 
existence  a  book  printed  in  Oxford  and  dated  on  the 
title  page  1468.  Upon  the  existence  of  this  book,  and 
upon  a  somewhat  doubtful  legend,  has  been  built  a 
claim  that  English  printing  originated  in  Oxford.  This 
claim,  however,  has  practically  ceased  to  be  main- 
tained. The  legend  appears  to  be  baseless,  and  it  has 
been  generally  concluded  that  the  date  is  a  misprint 
and  that  it  should  be  1478,  an  X  having  been  dropped 
in  writing  the  Roman  date,  a  not  uncommon  error  in 
publications  of  this  period.  Historians  have  now  gener- 
ally agreed  that  the  introduction  of  printing  in  England 
is  due  to  William  Caxton,  one  of  the  most  interesting 
figures  in  the  whole  annals  of  printing. 

Caxton  was  born  in  the  Weald,  or  wooded  land,  of 


THE  ENGLISH  PIONEERS 


Kent,  a  place  of  simple  people  and  uncouth  speech, 
about  142 1.  As  a  boy  he  was  apprenticed  to  Robert 
Large,  a  prominent  mercer  or  silk  merchant  of  London. 
On  the  death  of  Large,  not  many  years  later,  Caxton 
went  to  Bruges,  in  Belgium,  then  part  of  the  territory 
of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  and  became  connected  with 
the  so-called  English  "Nation"  or  "House."  This  was 
a  chartered  company  of  merchant  adventurers  similar 
to  the  companies  which  later  settled  certain  portions  of 
North  America  and  to  the  famous  East  India  Company. 
Caxton  appears  to  have  been  successful  in  business  and 
became  Governor  of  the  English  "Nation"  in  1462. 

Bruges  was  at  this  time  a  city  of  wealth  and  culture, 
the  Flemings  being  far  in  advance  of  the  English  in 
this  respect.  Life  in  these  surroundings  caused  Caxton 
to  become  interested  in  reading  and  good  literature, 
and  in  1467  he  undertook  a  translation  into  English 
of  a  collection  of  stories  of  Troy,  or  as  he  called  it 
"Recuyell  of  the  Historyes  of  Troye."  Shortly  after 
this,  Margaret,  sister  of  Edward  IV  of  England,  mar- 
ried the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  came  to  Bruges  to  live. 
Caxton  immediately  came  into  friendly  relations  with 
the  Duchess,  who  shortly  after  gave  him  a  position  in 
her  personal  service.  It  is  not  quite  clear  what  this 
position  was.  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  the 
purpose  of  the  Duchess  was  to  enable  Caxton  to  pursue 
his  literary  labors  with  the  special  end  of  making  con- 
tinental literature  known  to  the  English  through  trans- 
lation. A  more  probable  supposition,  however,  is  that 
he  was  the  confidential  business  adviser  to  the  Duchess. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  royal  personages  at  this 
period  engaged  freely  in  trade  and  that  sometimes  they 
engaged  in  extensive  commercial  transactions  with  other 


io  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

royal  personages  although  trade  between  their  two  coun- 
tries might  be  strictly  prohibited  by  law,  as  was  the 
case  with  England  and  Flanders  during  part  of  the  reign 
of  Edward  IV.  At  an  early  period  of  their  friendship 
Caxton  showed  the  Duchess  Margaret  his  unfinished 
translation  of  the  Troy  stories.  Fortunately  for  the 
wcrld,  the  Duchess  was  a  friendly  but  candid  critic. 
She  saw  both  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of  Cax- 
ton's  work,  and  while  she  took  him  to  task  roundly 
for  his  rough  and  poor  English  she  encouraged  and 
commanded  him  to  complete  his  translation  and  at  the 
same  time  improve  himself  in  English.  Caxton  there- 
upon renewed  his  work  and  completed  the  translation 
of  the  Troy  stories  at  Cologne  in  147 1. 

Caxton  was  immediately  besieged  with  demands  for 
copies  of  his  translations,  which,  of  course,  he  was  un- 
able to  furnish,  although  he  appears  to  have  worked  at 
it  until  time,  strength,  and  eyesight  failed.  He  there- 
upon determined  to  learn  the  new  art  of  printing  so  that 
he  might  by  that  means  multiply  copies  of  this  and  other 
works  which  he  might  execute.  Unquestionably  he  saw 
printing  presses  in  operation  in  Cologne.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  he  learned  to  print  there,  and  this  claim 
receives  some  support  from  an  ambiguous  statement 
attributed  to  him  many  years  later  by  Wynkyn  de 
Worde.  It  is  possible  that  Caxton  may  have  worked 
a  little  in  one  of  the  Cologne  printing  offices,  but  it  seems 
clear  on  internal  evidence  that  Air.  Blades  is  right  in  his 
conclusion  that  Caxton  did  not  learn  the  art  there.  The 
early  printed  work  of  Caxton  is  by  no  means  equal  to  that 
of  the  Cologne  printers,  and  represents  an  earlier  stage 
of  development  than  that  which  had  been  reached  by 
Cologne   at    this   period.      Many    of    the    compositor's 


THE  ENGLISH  PIONEERS  n 

methods  which  were  familiar  to  the  Cologne  printers  of 
1470  did  not  appear  in  Caxton's  books  until  years  later. 

On  Caxton's  return  from-  Cologne  he  associated  him- 
self with  one  Colard  Mansion,  who  for  a  few  years  un- 
successfully attempted  to  carry  en  a  printing  business 
at  Bruges.  The  probability  is  that  Caxton  learned  the 
art  during  this  association  with  Mansion.  The  asso- 
ciation was  terminated  in  1476  by  the  bankruptcy  of 
Mansion.  During  this  period,  however,  Caxton  and 
Mansion  published  five  books,  two  in  English  and  three 
in  French.  The  first  to  be  published,  and  the  first  book 
to  be  printed  in  English  anywhere,  was  the  translation 
of  the  Troy  stories.  One  of  the  other  books  was  the  first 
book  that  was  ever  printed  in  French.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  first  book  to  be  printed  in  French  was 
done  by  an  Englishman  in  Flanders. 

In  1476-  Caxton  withdrew  entirely  from  his  business 
connections  in  Bruges,  went  to  England,  taking  with 
him  his  presses,  type,  and  workmen,  and  opened  a 
printing  office  within  the  precincts  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  It  has  often  been  stated  that  Caxton's  print- 
ing office  was  in  the  abbey  building  itself,  but  this  is 
undoubtedly  an  error.  English  abbeys  and  cathedrals 
are  commonly  surrounded  by  a  considerable  extent  of 
ground  called  a  "close."  Within  this  "close"  are 
dwelling  houses  and  not  infrequently  shops.  The  en- 
tire property  belongs  to  and  is  controlled  by  the  abbey 
or  cathedral  authorities.  Caxton's  shop  appears  to 
have  been  in  a  building  known  as  the  "Red  Pale" 
within  the  abbey  "close."  Caxton  continued  to  print 
here  until  his  death  in  1491. 

Within  this  period  he  printed  ninety-three  books 
and  perhaps    eight    or  ten  more    whose   attribution    is 


12  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 


uncertain.  Of  these  ninety-three,  fifteen  ran  to  two 
editions  and  three  of  the  fifteen  ran  to  three  edi- 
tions. Caxton  was  a  good  business  man  and  was 
probably  possessed  of  considerable  capital  when  he 
began.  He  not  only  made  the  business  pay,  but  took 
advantage  of  his  somewhat  independent  position  finan- 
cially to  lead  and  create  the  popular  taste  instead  of 
following  it.  Caxton  was  thoroughly  English.  He 
knew  his  people  and  knew  what  they  would  take  and 
he  printed  accordingly.  He  did  a  good  business  in 
service  books,  school  books,  and  statutes  or  public 
printing.  These  were  what  we  should  call  to-day  "pot 
boilers"  and  kept  his  office  going  on  a  sound  business 
basis.  Beyond  that  he  printed  a  large  number  of  works  of 
good  literature,  but  he  took  no  unnecessary  chances  even 
in  this  field.  He  always  endeavored  either  to  get  the  finan- 
cial backing  of  some  wealthy  noble  or  to  assure  himself  of 
a  reasonable  sale  before  he  undertook  a  new  publication. 
In  the  field  of  literature  his  work  was  different  from 
that  of  almost  any  other  printer  of  his  time.  He  printed 
no  Bibles.  Latin  Bibles  could  easily  be  imported  from 
the  continent,  probably  cheaper  than  he  could  print 
them.  English  Bibles  were  not  permitted  to  be  printed 
unless  the  English  translation  had  been  made  before 
the  appearance  of  Wickliffe's  Bible  in  1380.  There  were 
translations  into  English  before  Wickliffe,  as  well  as  a 
considerable  number  of  later  date,  but  with  the  loose 
and  uncertain  dating  of  manuscripts  the  printing  of  an 
English  Bible  was  altogether  a  more  risky  proposition 
than  Caxton  cared  to  undertake.  He  printed  no  works 
on  theology.  There  was  no  demand  for  theology  in 
English,  and  theology  in  Latin  and  Greek  could  be 
cheaply  imported.     Moreover,  although  Caxton  was  a 


THE  ENGLISH  PIONEERS  13 

profoundly  religious  man  and-  a  perfectly  loyal  son  of 
the  Church,  he  appears  to  have  had  no  personal  interest 
in  theology  whatever.  For  similar  reasons  he  printed  no 
edition  of  the  Fathers  and  only  two  volumes  of  the 
classics.     He  left  all  of  these  matters  to  the  importers. 

His  field  of  publication  was  the  putting  before  the 
public  of  good,  recent  literature  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. He  did  this  partly  through  printing  the  works 
of  Chaucer,  Langland,  and  other  good  English  authors 
and  partly  through  translation  of  works  in  French  and 
Latin.  He  was  very  much  interested  in  English  history 
and  works  relating  to  England,  publishing  several  of 
the  old  chronicles  and  other  matters  of  this  sort.  He 
believed  that  there  was  great  help  to  be  found  in  read- 
ing stories  of  good  women  and  brave  men  and  he  at- 
tempted to  lay  a  store  of  such  stories  before  his  readers. 
His  own  translations  cover  over  five  thousand  closely 
printed  folio  pages,  but  he  had  many  other  translations 
made  for  him.  He  was  a  good  linguist  in  French,  Flem- 
ish, and  Latin  and  a  tireless  worker  at  his  literary  and 
business  labors.  He  meant  that  everything  which  he 
printed  should  be  helpful  to  his  readers  and  should 
make  for  the  betterment  of  the  life  of  his  time,  although 
he  would  have  been  the  first  to  disclaim  the  title  of 
reformer  or  missionary. 

Two  Rotable  instances  of  his  literary  honesty  appear. 
After  the  publication  of  his  first  edition  cf  Chaucer,  an 
acquaintance  came  to  him  and  called  his  attention  to 
the  fact  that  he  had  followed  a  very  imperfect  manu- 
script. His  friend  said  that  his  father  had  a  very  fine 
manuscript  and  Caxton  at  once  arranged  for  a  loan  of 
it.  Finding  that  through  following  an  imperfect  text 
he  had  omitted  many  things  from  Chaucer's  text  and 


14  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

inserted  many  others  which  did  not  belong  there,  he 
at  once  printed  a  correct  edition,  probably  at  very 
serious  loss  to  himself.  The  unsold  copies  of  the  first 
edition  became  useless  and  the  cost  of  a  second  edition 
was  equal  to  the  first,  as  the  work  had  to  be  entirely 
done  over  again  from  the  beginning.  The  other  in- 
stance must  be  judged  by  the  standards  of  his  time 
rather  than  ours,  but  showed  his  desire  to  present  only 
correct  texts  to  his  readers.  Caxton  published  in  1483 
a  translation  of  John  Mink's  "Liber  Festivalis."  An 
independent  translation  was  published  at  Oxford  in 
1487.  A  few  years  later  Caxton  published  a  second 
edition,  but  followed  the  Oxford  text  rather  than  his 
own  earlier  translation. 

Personally  Caxton  is  a  most  interesting  figure,  a 
sturdy,  honest,  high-minded,  common-sensible  Eng- 
lish gentleman,  a  man  who  loved  and  served  God, 
honored  the  King,  and  helped  his  neighbor  to  the  best 
of  his  ability,  and  who  did  his  country  an  inestimable 
service  not  only  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  art  but 
by  the  opening  of  a  new  field  of  literature. 

Caxton's  printing  was  not  remarkable  for  typograph- 
ical excellence.  He  used  soft. type  and  thin  ink,  very 
much  to  the  detriment  of  the  beauty  of  his  impressions. 
The  first'  type  which  he  used  was  a  font  of  black  let- 
ter made  in  imitation  of  the  handwriting  of  the  Bur- 
gundian  clerks  of  the  time.  This  font  had  belonged 
to  Mansion  and  was  probably  obtained  by  Caxton 
from  Mansion's  creditors.  Later  he  cut  for  himself 
several  other  fonts,  some  authorities  say  five,  some 
seven.  All  of  his  fonts  were  black-letter  Gothic  and 
all  more  or  less  related  to  the  Burgundian  script 
with  which  he  began.      He  used  /  instead  of  commas 


THE  ENGLISH  PIONEERS  15 

and  periods.  He  had  a  habit  of  correcting  typograph- 
ical errors  by  hand  after  the  books  were  finished.  He 
went  over  the  first  copy,  making  the  corrections  him- 
self, and  afterward  the  other  copies  were  made  to  con- 
form by  clerks  or  apprentices. 

While  Caxton  was  at  work  a  few  other  printers  made 
their  appearance  in  England.  Some  time  before  1478 
Theodoric  Rood,  of  Cologne,  opened  a  printing  office  at 
Oxford.  The  office  was  open  for  about  eight  years,  but 
seems  to  have  done  only  a  small  business.  We  have  fifteen 
books  which  are  known  to  have  come  from  this  press. 
They  were  printed  from  three  different  fonts  of  type. 
Two  of  them  were  good  letters  imported  from  Cologne. 
About  1487  Rood  disappeared  and  is  supposed  to  have 
gone  back  to  Cologne.  In  1479  a  press  was  started  at 
the  abbey  of  St.  Albans.  This  press  published  eight 
books  that  we  know  of,  all  for  church  use  or  the  direct 
use  of  the  abbey.  These  books  were  printed  from  four 
fonts  of  type,  two  of  which  are  identical  with  two  of  Cax- 
ton's.  It  is  possible  that  this  was  a  side  enterprise  of 
Caxton's,  although  it  is  equally  possible  that  the  abbey 
may  have  bought  the  type  of  Caxton  or  obtained  the 
use  of  his  matrices  or  even  hired  some  type  of  him. 
The  conclusions  based  on  apparent  identity  of  type- 
faces are  always  doubtful,  as  this  identity  may  be  ac- 
counted for  in  a  considerable  number  of  ways. 

In  14S0  a  printer  appeared  in  London  named  John 
Lettou.  Lettou  was  evidently  not  an  Englishman,  but 
his  origin  is  unknown.  The  word  Lettou  is  an  old  form 
of  Lithuania.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  identify 
him  with  certain  continental  printers,  but  as  these 
attempts  rest  on  similarities  of  type-face  they  are  un- 
certain.    Soon  after  his  appearance  Lettou  was  asso- 


1 6  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

ciated  with  William  Machlinia  or  de  Machlinia  (William 
of  Mechlin  or  Malines  in  Belgium).  Machlinia  made  a 
specialty  of  law  books.  The  business  was  later  taken 
over  by  Richard  Pynson.  None  of  these  made  any 
particular  contribution  to  typography.  Their  interest 
lies  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  they  were  the  beginners  of 
English  printing. 

There  was  no  successor  to  carry  on  Caxton's  tradi- 
tions of  scholarship,  of  literary  taste,  or  even  of  crafts- 
manship. Caxton,  as  we  have  said,  was  a  successful 
business  man  before  he  became  a  printer  and  was 
doubtless  financially  independent  during  the  whole  of  his 
later  life.  His  successors  were  men  who  were  dependent 
entirely  upon  their  craft  for  their  livelihood.  Caxton's 
immediate  successors  were  two,  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  a 
native  of  Lorraine,  and  Richard  Pynson,  a  native  of 
Normandy.  Both  of  these  men  appear  to  have  learned 
their  trade  with  Caxton.  Wynkyn  de  Worde  carried 
on  the  business  after  Caxton's  death.  De  Worde 
appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  very  little  education. 
Pynson  was  a  graduate  of  the  University  of  Paris,  but 
he  never  became  at  home  in  the  English  language. 

De  Worde  carried  on  the  Caxton  business  from  1491 
to  1534,  at  first  in  Caxton's  own  shop,  afterward  in 
London  (Westminster  and  London  have  now  grown 
together,  but  at  that  time  they  were  a  considerable  dis- 
tance apart).  During  this  time  De  Worde  published  over 
six  hundred  books.  His  books  were  cheap  and  poor  in 
every  way.  De  Worde  was  slow  to  start  publishing. 
He  published  almost  nothing  for  a  couple  of  years  after 
Caxton's  death.  He  appears  to  have  lacked  initiative 
and  probably  lacked  capita!.  He  seems  to  have  dis- 
covered that  there  was  money  in  cheap  publications  of 


THE  ENGLISH  PIONEERS  17 


a  sort  that  catered  to  the  popular  taste,  and  he  dili- 
gently worked  that  line  of  business.  He  appears  to 
have  made  money,  but  cannot  be  credited  with  any 
higher  type  of  success.  He  hired  translators  and  edi- 
tors and  he  evidently  hired  cheap  ones,  as  the  editorial 
work  on  his  books  is  not  good. 

Pynson  printed  from  1492  to  1529.  He  did  a  much 
higher  class  of  work  than  De  Worde,  although  he  is  by 
no  means  eminent  for  his  typography.  He  made  less 
money  than  De  Worde,  but  appears  to  have  kept  out 
of  financial  difficulties.  His  publications  were  mostly 
law  books.  He  took  over  the  business  of  Lettou  and 
Machlinia,  but  had  specialized  in  law  books  on  becom- 
ing printer  to  the  king  in  15 10.  Pynson  introduced 
the  use  of  roman  type  in  1509,  although  it  was  some 
time  before  it  displaced  the  gothic  in  common  use. 
In  1523  to  1525  he  printed  Lord  Berners's  translation 
of  the  "Chronicle"  of  Froissart.  In  literature  this  is 
a  notable  event.  Froissart  was  really  the  first  modern 
historian.  The  book  marks  the  transition  from  the 
dry  chronicles  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  history  proper. 

Robert  Copeland,  who  began  to  print  about  15 14,  is 
notable  as  being  probably  the  first  English  printer,  that 
is  to  say,  the  first  native-born  Englishman  to  go  into 
the  business. 

One  of  the  few  good  printers  of  this  early  period  was 
Thomas  Berthelet  or  Bartlett.  Berthelet  was  a  Welsh- 
man and  was  an  excellent  bookbinder  as  well  as  a  good 
printer.  He  was  the  first  man  in  England  tousegold  tool- 
ing on  his  binding.  Berthelet  enjoyed  the  position  of 
royal  printer.  Richard  Grafton  and  Edward  Whitchurch 
were  the  first  printers  of  English  Bibles,  which  began 
to  appear  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 


CHAPTER  II 

The  Regulation  of  the  Industry  and  the 
Company  of  Stationers 

THE  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  marks  a  dis- 
tinct change  in  English  printing.  Up  to  this  time 
the  industry  in  England  had  been  neither  organ- 
ized, regulated,  nor  censored.  It  had  been  conducted 
under  conditions  of  freedom  almost  identical  with  those 
which  exist  to-day,  a  state  of  things  entirely  anomalous 
in  that  period.  The  quality  of  English  printing  in  this 
period  was  generally  very  poor.  In  spite,  however,  of 
the  poor  workmanship,  there  lingers  something  of  the 
old  craftsman  spirit.  Although  the  books  show  glar- 
ing imperfections,  they  also  show  a  certain  dignity  and 
harmony  which  is  reminiscent  of  the  spirit  of  the  old 
craftsmen.  In  detail,  however,  the  work  was  poor  both 
in  composition  and  presswork.  It  showed  an  almost 
entire  lack  of  originality.  Types,  wood-cuts,  initials, 
ornaments,  and  even  the  printer's  devices  were  not 
only  bought  from  the  continent  of  Europe  but  bought 
second-hand  and  used  long  after  signs  of  wear  had 
become  painfully  evident.  Wood-cuts  especially  were 
not  only  over-used  but  misused.  They  were  not  infre- 
quently inserted  with  absolute  disregard  of  the  text. 
The  printers  not  only  stuck  in  pictures  which  had  no 
bearing  whatever  upon  the  subject  matter,  but  they 
used  the  same  picture  more  than  once  in  the  same  book. 
The  reason  for  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  proprietors  of  the  large  shops  were  intent  on  profit 

18 


REGULATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY         19 

and  the  proprietors  of  the  small  shops  had  no  capital. 
The  experience  of  Wynkyn  de  Worde  had  shown  that 
the  way  to  make  money  was  by  printing  popular  books 
which  could  be  sold  cheap,  and  his  successors  learned 
the  lesson  only  too  rapidly.  There  was  no  effective 
demand  for  good  printing.  The  smaller  printers  had 
to  buy  such  materials  as  they  could  afford  and  com- 
pete as  best  they  could. 

From  about  1525,  which  will  be  recalled  as  the  date 
of  the  publication  of  Froissart's  "Chronicle,"  there 
was  a  change  in  the  demand  for  books.  The  revival 
of  learning  wras  beginning  to  make  itself  felt  in  Eng- 
land. The  influence  of  Erasmus  on  the  intellectual 
life  of  the  age  was  very  great.  This  influence  was 
especially  felt  in  England  because  Erasmus  had  him- 
self spent  considerable  time  there  and  was  a  friend  of 
John  Colet,  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  who  was  not  only  an 
influential  clergyman  but  a  very  great  scholar.  Eng- 
land was  also  beginning  to  feel  the  stirrings  of  philo- 
sophical and  religious  discussion.  There  was  a  great 
demand  for  educational  books  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  scholars  and  there  began  to  be  a  great  output  of 
controversial  literature.  Wynkyn  de  Worde  sometimes 
printed  three  or  four  editions  of  the  same  Latin  gram- 
mar in  one  year,  so  great  was  the  demand  for  educa- 
tional books. 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  century,  however,  very 
little  original  work  was  printed  in  England,  or  at  any 
rate  is  now  extant.  The  popular  demand  was  for  re- 
prints of  old  books  and  for  translations  of  French  poems 
and  romances.  The  classics  and  other  works  of  more 
serious  literature  were  commonly  imported.  There  was 
also  a  considerable  amount  of  printing  for  the  English 


20  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

trade  done  on  the  continent.  Not  content  with  fur- 
nishing the  English  with  books  in  Greek  and  Latin  and 
the  modern  languages,  some  of  the  continental  printers 
did  a  flourishing  trade  in  the  printing  of  books  in  Eng- 
lish. Their  work  was  generally  better  and  cheaper  than 
that  of  the  English  printers. 

As  has  already  been  said,  English  printing  was  left 
very  much  alone  up  to  1557  excepting  that  privileges 
were  granted  by  the  crown  rather  freely.  Beginning 
with  the  privileges  to  print  statutes  and  law  books,  the 
practice  spread  until  by  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury practically  all  profitable  printing  was  covered  by 
privilege. 

During  this  period,  and  indeed  for  several  centuries 
later,  the  industry  was  free  from  labor  troubles.  The 
reason,  however,  is  to  be  found  in  the  peculiar  situa- 
tion which  existed  under  English  law.  Under  English 
common  law  all  combinations  of  workmen  were  con- 
sidered as  contrary  to  public  policy,  regarded  as  com- 
binations in  restraint  of  trade,  and  dealt  with  very 
harshly.  A  single  workman  might  work  or  refuse  to 
work  for  whatever  pay  or  under  whatever  conditions 
he  pleased,  but  an  agreement  of  two  or  more  on  this 
basis,  that  is  to  combine  for  pay,  hours,  and  the  like, 
was  a  criminal  conspiracy.  Not  only  were  any  agree- 
ments such  a  group  of  men  might  make  absolutely 
void,  but  the  very  fact  of  entering  such  a  combination 
was  itself  a  criminal  offence.  From  the  reign  of  Edward 
I  (1272-1307)  to  George  IV  (1820— 1830)  thirty  or 
forty  acts  of  Parliament,  commonly  called  "Statutes 
of  Laborers,"  were  passed  on  this  basis.  The  reenact- 
ment  of  legislation  on  this  subject  from  time  to  time 
was  not  caused,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  by  the  inef- 


REGULATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY        21 

fectiveness  of  the  legislation  but  by  the  necessity  of 
meeting  special  conditions  which  were  created  by  visi- 
tations of  the  plague,  wars,  and  other  events  having 
far-reaching  industrial  effects. 

The  development  of  the  factory  system  of  produc- 
tion, beginning  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, with  the  consequent  gathering  of  great  groups  of 
workmen  in  certain  localities  and  the  rapid  increase  in 
the  town  population,  rendered  a  continuance  of  the  old 
regulations  more  and  more  difficult.  The  laws  against 
combinations  of  workmen  were  evaded  by  the  organ- 
ization of  secret  societies,  while  the  displacement  of 
large  numbers  of  hand  workers  by  the  introduction  of 
machinery  caused  serious  labor  troubles  and  rioting. 
Other  conditions  too  familiar  to  need  description  arose 
which  caused  friction  between  the  workmen  and  their 
employers.  Attempts  were  made  at  first  to  put  a  stop 
to  the  combinations  of  the  workmen  by  more  and  more 
stringent  legislation.  This  proving  unsuccessful,  the 
legislation  was  modified  in  the  direction  of  leniency. 
Gradually  the  unions  won  their  way  to  recognition, 
although  this  recognition  was  developed  in  the  slow 
and  inconsistent  way  which  is  common  with  English 
legislation. 

In  1875  the  whole  matter  was  put  on  a  new  basis  by 
the  legal  acceptance  of  the  principle  that  it  is  lawful 
for  any  combination  of  men  to  do  any  act  which  it 
would  be  lawful  for  either  of  them  to  do  singly.  This, 
of  course,  was  a  reversal  of  the  fundamental  principle 
of  more  than  six  hundred  years  of  labor  legislation,  that 
it  was  not  lawful  for  a  combination  of  men  to  do  things 
which  any  one  of  them  might  lawfully  do.  Since  that 
time  the   unions    have  rapidly  won    their  way  to    full 


22  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

recognition  and  to  great  importance  in  the  industry.  In 
England  to-day  practically  all  trades  are  very  thoroughly 
unionized.  The  printing  industry  is  no  exception. 
Union  membership  is  much  more  universal  among  the 
workmen  in  the  industry  than  it  is  in  the  United  States. 
This  development  of  organization  among  the  work- 
men has  been  accompanied  by  a  development  of  strong 
organizations  of  employers  in  all  industries.  To-day 
practically  all  industrial  bargaining  in  England  is  col- 
lective bargaining  carried  on  between  associated  em- 
ployers and  associated  employees. 

The  same  difficulties  arising  out  of  lack  of  regula- 
tion which  had  vexed  the  industry  on  the  continent 
had  made  themselves  felt  in  England,  but  with  their 
usual  good  sense  the  English  attacked  the  problem  at 
a  very  early  period.  Nearly  sixty  years  before  the 
organization  of  the  Community  of  Printers  in  France, 
in  1618,  the  English  had  put  printing  in  line  with  the 
other  industries  by  the  organization  of  the  Stationers' 
Company  in  1557,  the  last  year  of  Queen  Alary  I. 

The  organization  of  the  Stationers  was  by  no  means 
an  innovation.  It  was  rather  the  legalizing  and  regu- 
larizing of  a  condition  which  had  risen  under  the  famil- 
iar conditions  of  English  industry.  As  early  as  1403 
we  find  the  guild  or  fraternity  of  scriveners.  This 
guild  or  fraternity  developed  into  the  "Craft"  of  sta- 
tioners, influential  in  fixing  and  controlling  trade  cus- 
toms. The  growth  of  the  craft  or  trade  guilds  in  Eng- 
land was  not  unlike  that  of  similar  organizations  in 
Europe.  Their  control  of  the  situation,  however,  seems 
to  have  been  even  more  close  than  elsewhere.  An  ordi- 
nance of  Edward  II  (1307-1327)  compelled  every  citizen 
of  a  town  to  be  a  member  of  some  craft  or  mystery. 


REGULATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY         23 

In  1375  the  election  of  the  city  officials  of  London 
was  turned  over  to  the  craft  guilds  or,  as  they  were 
termed,  liveried  companies.  The  liveried  companies 
were  so  called  because  each  had  a  distinctive  dress 
which  was  worn  on  formal  occasions.  From  this  time 
on  the  liveried  companies  controlled  the  political  and 
municipal  power  of  London  for  several  centuries,  elect- 
ing the  Lord  Mayor  and  Aldermen,  controlling  the 
train-bands,  or  city  militia,  and  to  a  great  extent  hold- 
ing the  defence  of  the  kingdom  in  their  hands.  About 
seventy-six  of  these  companies  still  continue  to  exist. 
They  survive  mainly  for  charitable  and  philanthropic 
purposes,  conserving  and  administering  the  large  funds 
which  were  accumulated  in  early  centuries. 

The  Stationers'  Company  was  organized  in  1557 
partly  because  the  printers  saw  the  necessity  for  organ- 
ization and  regulation  of  the  industry,  and  partly  be- 
cause the  crown  desired  a  better  means  for  controlling 
printing  than  had  theretofore  existed.  It  will  be  re- 
membered that  this  was  in  the  midst  of  the  age  of 
religious  controversy.  King  Henry  VIII  had  attempted 
to  set  himself  up  as  the  head  of  a  national  church  which 
was  not  Protestant  and  at  the  same  time  did  not 
acknowledge  allegiance  to  the  Pope.  King  Henry  exe- 
cuted with  great  impartiality  both  those  who  defended 
the  ecclesiastical  supremacy  of  the  Pope  and  those 
who  professed  Protestant  opinions.  His  successor, 
King  Edward  VI,  was  a  Protestant  and  attempted  to 
make  England  Protestant.  His  short  reign  was  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  Mary  I,  who  was  a  Catholic  and  at- 
tempted to  make  England  Catholic.  Her  comparatively 
short  reign  was  followed  by  the  long  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
in  whose  time   Protestantism   became  the  established 


24  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

state  church  of  England.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
it  was  near  the  close  of  Mary's  reign  that  the  Sta- 
tioners' Company  was  chartered,  and  the  interest  of 
the  crown  in  securing  a  better  control  of  the  printing 
press  and  its  output  is  obvious.  In  1560,  the  second 
year  of  Elizabeth,  the  incorporation  of  the  Stationers' 
Company  was  rendered  complete  by  the  enrolment 
of  the  new  company  in  the  list  of  the  liveried  companies 
of  London,  and  we  shall  presently  see  that  the  royal 
hand  was  laid  heavily  upon  the  printers  and  their  work. 

The  Stationers'  Company  was  organized  in  the  usual 
form,  with  its  administration  in  the  hands  of  a  Master 
and  two  Wardens.  The  terms  of  the  charter  gave  the 
company  authority  to  govern  the  trade  and  to  enforce 
its  regulations  by  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  visitation 
and  disciplinary  control  over  its  members.  This 
extended  not  only  to  the  enforcement  of  the  regula- 
tions of  the  Company  but  also  to  the  enforcement  of 
royal  proclamations  and  injunctions,  and  decrees  of 
the  Star  Chamber. 

The  Star  Chamber,  frequently  mentioned  in  English 
history  in  general,  as  well  as  in  the  history  of  English 
printing,  was  a  special  court  of  high  officials.  The 
powers  and  jurisdiction  of  this  court  were  somewhat 
vague  and  undefined.  Theoretically  it  was  intended 
to  deal  with  matters  which  could  not  be  adequately 
dealt  with  by  the  regular  courts  because  of  the  neces- 
sity of  immediate  action,  the  important  nature  of  the 
case,  or  other  conditions  which  made  the  action  of  the 
ordinary  courts  too  slow  or  not  sufficiently  effective. 
Naturally  the  existence  of  such  a  court  opened  the 
way  to  serious  abuses,  and  alleged  abuses  of  its  author- 
ity played  a  very  large  part  in  the  Revolution  by  which 


REGULATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY        25 

King  Charles  I  lost  his  head.  As  a  result  of  these  revo- 
lutionary movements,  the  court  was  discontinued  in 
1641,  after  an  existence  of  at  least  three  hundred  years. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  the  ceiling  of  the  room  it  sat  in  in  early  times  was 
decorated  with  stars. 

After  the  organization  of  the  Stationers'  Company 
the  exercise  of  the  trade  was  limited  to  its  members. 
The  Company  was  required  to  keep  registers  giving 
the  names  of  the  Masters  and  Wardens,  of  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Company  and  their  apprentices,  and  of  all 
who  "took  up  freedom,"  that  is  to  say,  became  mem- 
bers of  the  Company  from  time  to  time.  All  books 
printed  were  required  to  be  registered  with  the  Com- 
pany and  a  copy  deposited  in  the  archives  accompanied 
by  a  fee.  This  was  the  beginning  of  copyright.  It  was 
understood  that  the  members  of  the  Company  should 
respect  each  others'  rights  to  publications  thus  regis- 
tered, although  it  appears  to  have  been  a  "gentleman's 
agreement"  rather  than  a  regulation.  This  require- 
ment did  not  apply  to  books  which  were  published 
under  royal  privilege,  but  the  members  of  the  Com- 
pany were  bound  to  respect  these  privileges  and  not 
in  any  way  infringe  upon  the  rights  which  they  con- 
ferred. The  requirement  of  registration  did  not  apply 
to  the  king's  printers  in  so  far  as  their  patent  for  the 
royal  printing  extended;  that  is  to  say,  the  royal  printer 
was  not  required  to  register  statutes,  law  books,  or  other 
government  printing,  but  he  was  required  to  register 
all  general  publications.  This  legislation  requiring 
registration  was  not  always  strictly  enforced. 

The  powers  of  the  Company  were  used  much  more 
for  the  regulation  and  control  of  printing  than  for  the 


26  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

improvement  of  the  art.  It  was  to  the  Company  that 
the  government  looked  particularly  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  statutes  regarding  printing.  For  that 
reason,  if  a  book  were  of  doubtful  character  and  liable 
to  be  prohibited  the  publisher  preferred  to  run  the 
chance  of  attempting  to  evade  the  regulation  regard- 
ing registration.  Fortunately  the  registers  of  the  Com- 
pany containing  the  records  of  all  their  transactions 
are  for  the  most  part  still  in  existence.  They  furnish 
an  immense  fund  of  valuable  information  extending 
over  a  very  long  period. 

The  Stationers'  Company  included  the  printers,  book- 
binders, type-founders,  and  booksellers.  It  had  ninety- 
seven  charter  members.  A  few  of  the  London  printers 
are  known  not  to  have  joined  the  Company  when  it  was 
organized.  Why  they  stood  out  we  do  not  know.  Very 
likely  it  was  simply  the  usual  assertion  of  British  inde- 
pendence and  impatience  of  control.  The  requirement 
of  membership  in  the  Company  as  a  requisite  to  carry- 
ing on  the  business  was  not  enforced  with  regard  to 
those  printers  who  were  in  business  when  the  Company 
was  chartered,  its  application  being  restricted  to  those 
who  might  thereafter  desire  to  enter  the  business.  Some 
of  the  independents  afterwards  joined  the  Company. 
The  remainder  stayed  out  permanently. 

The  organization  of  the  Company  was  not  in  itself 
sufficient  to  secure  the  desired  control  of  the  industry. 
As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  an  immense  flood  of 
printed  matter  was  being  brought  out  on  account  of 
the  bitter  religious  and  political  controversies  of  the 
time.  Most  of  it  was  very  poor  printing.  The  end 
desired  was  to  get  it  out  as  quickly  as  possible  and  as 
cheaply  as  possible.     Much  of  it  was  objectionable  to 


REGULATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY        27 

the  government  and  the  organization  of  the  Company 
was  immediately  followed  up  by  repressive  legislation. 

In  1558  Queen  Elizabeth  laid  the  foundation  of  leg- 
islation for  the  control  of  the  press  by  issuing  "injunc- 
tions" which  required  that  every  book  should  be  li- 
censed either  by  the  Queen  or  by  the  members  of  the 
Privy  Council,  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  by 
the  Chancellor  of  one  of  the  two  universities,  or  by 
other  authorities  specified  in  the  act.  Frequent  proc- 
lamations and  orders  show  that  the  injunctions  were 
not  obeyed.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  fundamental 
principle  in  the  study  of  history  that  the  frequent  repe- 
tition of  legislation  on  any  one  subject  shows  that  the 
subject  is  considered  very  important  by  the  govern- 
ment and  that  the  legislation  is  not  effective.  So  seri- 
ously was  this  matter  regarded  by  the  government 
that  very  extreme  measures  were  adopted  in  dealing 
with  offending  printers.  One  William  Carter,  for 
instance,  who  had  been  several  times  punished  for 
breach  of  the  printing  regulations,  finally  printed  a 
seditious  book,  "a  treatise  of  schisme,"  for  which  he 
was  tried  for  high  treason,  condemned  to  death  and 
hanged,  disembowelled,  and  quartered  according  to  the 
ghastly  custom  of  that  time. 

By  way  of  further  tightening  of  the  regulations  a 
Star  Chamber  decree  was  issued  in  1586  much  more 
strict  than  any  preceding  order.  By  the  provisions  of 
this  decree  all  presses  then  working  had  to  be  reported 
in  the  same  way  as  already  provided.  No  presses 
whatever  were  allowed  outside  of  London,  excepting 
one  each  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Previous  to  the 
charter  of  the  Company  provincial  presses  had  been 
started  at  Oxford,  York,  Cambridge,  Abingdon,  Tav- 


28  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

istock,  St.  Albans,  Bristol,  Ipswich,  Canterbury,  and 
Norwich,  in  the  order  named.  These,  of  course,  were 
all  swept  away  by  this  act  excepting  those  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  No  more  presses  were  to  be  permitted 
until  the  number  in  use  had  been  reduced  to  a  number 
which  should  be  pronounced  sufficient  for  the  needs  of 
the  kingdom  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and 
the  Bishop  of  London.  Vacancies  in  the  number  of 
licensed  printers  were  to  be  filled  by  three  stationers 
(members  of  the  Company)  who  would  be  nominated 
by  the  Company  and  licensed  by  an  ecclesiastical  com- 
mission. The  censorship,  both  ecclesiastical  and  lay, 
was  developed  and  enforced  by  further  provisions  of 
the  act. 

These  are  the  conditions  under  which  that  great 
literature  which  is  known  as  Elizabethan  literature 
was  created  and  published.  It  seems  incredible  that 
such  literature  could  have  been  produced  under  such 
conditions.  The  fact  that  it  was  so  produced  seems 
to  show  that  the  censors  made  a  conscientious  attempt 
to  enforce  the  legislation  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent 
the  actual  abuse  of  the  printing  press  and  to  protect 
the  government  from  danger  arising  from  these  sources, 
while  leaving  pure  literature  as  free  as  the  conditions 
permitted.  Of  course,  we  of  to-day  regard  any  system 
of  press  censorship  as  wrong  and  cannot  approve 
any  such  legislation.  It  is  worth  while,  however,  to 
remember  that  these  men  made  an  earnest  effort  to 
live  up  to  the  moral  and  political  standards  of  their 
own  time. 

In  the  execution  of  this  edict  the  Stationers'  Com- 
pany made  weekly  official  visits  to  every  shop.  These 
visitations  were  intended  to  ascertain: 


REGULATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY        29 

1.  How  many  presses  each  printer  possessed. 

2.  What  he  printed. 

3.  How  many  impressions  were  taken  of  each  piece 
of  work. 

4.  How  many  workmen  and  apprentices  there  were 
in  each  plant. 

5.  Whether  unauthorized  persons  «were  employed  or 
allowed  to  remain  about  the  plant. 

The  regulations  of  the  edict  and  also  the  private 
regulations  of  the  Company  seem  to  have  been  en- 
forced at  this  time  with  all  the  thoroughness  in  the 
power  of  the  Company.  The  registers  show  that  its 
officers  frequently  seized  and  destroyed  editions  of 
unlicensed  books  and  in  other  ways  enforced  the  edicts 
against  all  persons.  Its  own  members  were  frequently 
disciplined.  The  registers  show  discipline  for  printing 
an  unlicensed  book,  for  selling  a  prayer  book  of  Edward 
VI  in  place  of  one  of  Elizabeth,  for  infringing  a  copy- 
right, for  printing  indecent  or  offensive  matters,  for 
selling  books  to  other  than  book  shops,  for  selling  books 
"disorderly  printed,"  for  keeping  open  on  Sundays 
and  festival  days,  and  for  keeping  unregistered  ap- 
prentices. The  phrase  "disorderly  printed"  appears  to 
refer  to  the  careless  and  inaccurate  printing  of  the  books 
rather  than  to  the  nature  of  their  contents.  The  print- 
ing standards  of  the  time  were  not  high,  but  this  would 
appear  to  indicate  a  disposition  to  maintain  them, 
such  as  they  were.  The  punishment  for  selling  to  other 
than  book  shops  is  interesting  as  showing  that  at  that 
early  period  the  book  trade  suffered  from  one  of  the 
things  which  to-day  causes  much  complaint  among 
booksellers.  Sales  by  department  stores,  drug  stores, 
and  other  parties  disposed  to  cut  rates  are  regarded  as 


3o  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

serious  difficulties  in  the  book  trade  of  to-day  and  it  is 
evident  that  the  same  difficulty  occurred  three  hundred 
and  fifty  years  ago. 

The  difficulties  of  the  printers  were  by  no  means 
limited  to  those  created  by  the  edicts  or  regulations. 
One  of  the  great  sources  of  difficulty  lay  in  the  privi- 
leges and  monopolies  which  had  been  recklessly  granted 
for  a  considerable  period.  These  privileges  had  a  most 
unfortunate  effect  upon  the  industry  both  on  the  side 
of  business  and  on  that  of  craftsmanship.  On  the  side 
of  business  they  gave  to  certain  printers  a  monopoly 
of  practically  all  of  the  work  which  was  certain  to  pro- 
duce good  financial  returns,  leaving  to  the  unprivileged 
printers  the  doubtful  enterprise  of  producing  current 
literature.  On  the  side  of  craftsmanship  they  took 
away  the  spur  of  competition.  The  greater  part  of 
the  literature  of  this  period  was  produced  by  unprivi- 
leged printers,  most  of  it  with  very  little  profit  to  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  privileged  printer,  being  secured 
in  his  monopoly  of  a  certain  kind  of  production,  was 
not  held  to  any  artistic  standards.  Competition  being 
impossible,  he  could  print  as  cheaply  and  as  badly  as 
he  chose  and  generally  did  so.  In  both  directions  the 
effect  was  paralyzing. 

Naturally  the  unprivileged  printers  were  constantly 
tempted  to  infringe  upon  the  monopoly  rights  of  the 
others,  with  the  result  that  there  was  constant  friction 
and  appeals  to  authority  were  taken  on  both  sides. 
The  matter  finally  came  to  a  head  in  a  serious  revolt 
of  the  unprivileged  printers  under  the  leadership  of 
one  John  Wolfe.  Wolfe  was  a  member  of  the  Fish- 
mongers' Company,  but  had  undertaken  to  do  printing 
and  declared  boldly  that  he  proposed  to  lead  a  move- 


REGULATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY         31 

ment  which  would  revolutionize  the  entire  situation. 
The  revolt  was  sufficiently  serious  to  bring  about  a 
compromise  by  which  a  considerable  number  of  priv- 
ileges were  given  up  entirely  or  turned  over  to  the 
Company  to  be  re-distributed  by  them  among  the 
printers.  The  extent  to  which  these  privileges  were 
granted  may  be  seen  by  the  fact  that  John  Day,  of 
whom  we  shall  hear  more  presently,  alone  gave  up  fifty- 
three  privileges,  although  he  kept  several  of  the  most 
important  and  profitable  ones.  Wolfe  transferred  his 
membership  from  the  Fishmongers'  to  the  Stationers' 
Company.  As  a  member  of  the  Stationers'  Company 
he  obtained  certain  privileges  for  himself  and  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  not  long  afterward  the  registers  of 
the  Company  show  Wolfe  appealing  because  somebody 
had  infringed  upon  a  privilege  of  his.  Wolfe  rose  to 
become  an  officer  of  the  Company  and  distinguished 
himself  as  a  prosecutor  of  offending  printers  and  a 
staunch  upholder  c  t  law  and  order. 

The  natural  result  of  the  reduction  of  the  number 
of  offices  under  the  edict  of  1586  was  that  the  trade 
was  seriously  overmanned  and  there  were  too  many 
apprentices,  as  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  offices 
did  not  affect  the  number  of  either  journeymen  or 
apprentices.  The  Company  dealt  with  the  matter  in 
a  rather  successful  fashion  by  an  order  issued  in  1587. 
This  order  limited  the  number  of  apprentices  and 
attempted  to  make  as  much  work  as  possible  for  the 
journeymen.  It  provided  that  no  apprentice  should 
be  allowed  to  work  in  either  the  composing  room  or 
the  press  room  if  there  were  any  competent  journey- 
men in  need  of  work.  When  we  remember  the  small 
number  of  offices  in  London  and  the  fact  that  there 


32  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

were  only  two  in  England  outside  of  London,  we  can 
readily  see  that  this  order  was  not  so  difficult  of  en- 
forcement as  might  appear.  No  form  was  to  be  kept 
standing  to  the  injury  of  workmen.  The  meaning  of 
this  is  clearer  when  we  remember  that  all  composition 
at  this  time  was  hand  composition  and  that  stereotyping 
and  other  methods  of  preserving  forms  were  not  known 
and  consequently  a  reprint  or  re-issue  was,  excepting 
for  absence  of  editorial  work,  a  new  job.  If  there  was 
expectation  that  a  new  reprint  might  soon  be  required 
and  the  printer  had  the  type  to  spare  he  might  leave 
a  form  standing  and  so  avoid  the  labor  of  recomposi- 
tion.  This  regulation  meant  that  as  soon  as  the  first 
impression  was  taken  the  type  must  be  distributed  so 
that  in  case  of  reprinting  the  compositor  would  have 
a  new  job.  For  like  reasons  the  number  of  copies  to 
be  printed  was  limited  in  ordinary  cases  to  1250  or 
1500,  so  that  if  the  book  proved  to  be  popular  work 
might  be  provided  in  setting  up  repeated  editions. 
These  regulations  seem  to  have  been  reasonably  suc- 
cessful so  far  as  the  journeymen  were  concerned,  but, 
of  course,  they  materially  increased  the  price  of  books. 
The  period  of  apprenticeship  was  from  seven  to 
eleven  years.  It  was  intended  that  apprenticeship 
should  end  at  24,  and  the  length  of  the  apprenticeship 
depended  upon  the  age  at  which  it  was  begun.  At  the 
end  of  the  apprenticeship  the  indenture  required  that 
the  master  should  m  ke  the  apprentice  free  of  the  Com- 
pany "if  he  have  well  and  truely  served."  As  the  limit 
of  membership  of  the  Company  was  only  about  25, 
for  a  long  period  only  about  one-half  of  the  apprentices 
ever  became  masters;  the  rest  of  them  remained  per- 
manently in  the  position  of  journeymen.    As  elsewhere 


REGULATION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY        33 

in  Europe,  the  apprentice  might  become  heir  to  the 
business  and  the  place  in  the  Company  by  marrying 
either  the  daughter  or  the  widow  of  a  master  printer. 
Apparently  the  business  went  to  the  widow  rather 
than  to  the  daughter  if  the  widow  survived.  Widows 
even  seem  to  have  taken  the  business  in  preference  to 
sons.  Consequently  the  widow  of  a  master  printer  was 
a  very  desirable  match  for  an  ambitious  apprentice  in 
spite  of  any  difference  in  age,  and  several  instances 
are  recorded  where  a  business  changed  hands  twice  by 
successive  re-marriages  of  the  widow. 

There  was  a  strong  tendency,  which  we  shall  discuss 
more  at  length  later,  for  the  bookseller  to  get  control 
of  the  situation.  Copyrights  generally  belonged  to 
the  booksellers.  They  purchased  them  from  the  authors 
and  held  them  as  against  the  printers.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  an  author  could  not  obtain  a  copy- 
right, as  copyright  was  secured  by  registration  in  the 
Stationers'  Company  and  this  registration  could  be 
made  only  by  a  bookseller  or  a  printer.  Consequently 
the  author  was  obliged  to  content  himself  with  what 
the  purchaser  of  his  work  was  willing  to  give  him.  The 
bookseller  naturally  got  his  printing  done  as  cheaplv 
as  he  could  and  printers  cut  prices  then  just  as  thev 
do  now,  and  got  poor  as  a  result   just  as  they  do  now. 


CHAPTER  III 

John  Day  and  the  Dark  Ages  of  English 
Printing 

ONE  name  stands  out  among  English  printers  of 
this  period,  that  of  John  Day.  who  has  been  de- 
scribed as  "one  of  the  best  and  most  enterprising  of 
printers."  Day  was  born  in  1522  and  began  to  print  in 
1546.  His  business  career  lasted  for  thirty-eight  years. 
He  died  in  1584,  at  the  age  of  62.  Day  began  his  business 
life  at  a  period  when  English  printing  was  very  poor.  His 
first  books  were  as  bad  as  those  of  his  contemporaries. 
They  were  printed  from  worn  type,  the  press  work  was 
bad,  they  were  without  pagination,  and  he  did  not  even 
use  a  device  such  as  was  customary  among  printers 
at  that  time.  His  first  important  work  was  a  Bible, 
printed  in  1549.  This  Bible  was  illustrated  by  wood- 
cuts which  were  very  evidently  second-hand,  as  they 
extended  beyond  the  letter-press  on  the  page.  On  the 
accession  of  Queen  Alary  I,  in  1553,  he  went  abroad, 
possibly  for  religious  reasons,  but  probably  not,  as  Day, 
like  most  printers  of  this  particular  time,  found  no 
difficulty  in  conforming  himself  to  the  religious  views 
of  the  government.  As  a  rule  they  accepted  the  pecu- 
liar position  of  Henry  VIII  which  has  already  been 
described,  printed  Protestant  books  under  Edward  VI, 
Catholic  books  under  Mary,  and  Protestant  books 
under  Elizabeth.  They  seem  to  have  been  quite  con- 
tent, in  other  words,  to  take  what  was  brought  them 
and  to  accept  whatever  government  regulations  might 
be  in  existence. 

34 


THE  DARK  AGES  OF  PRINTING  35 


This  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  printers  reflects  the 
general  attitude  of  the  English  people  at  this  time. 
There  is  very  little  doubt  that  the  mass  of  the  people 
were  neither  staunchly  Catholic  nor  aggressively  Prot- 
estant. While  there  were  earnest  and  aggressive 
spirits  in  both  parties,  it  seems  quite  clear  that  the 
vast  majority  of  the  people  were  ready  to  accept  either 
Catholicism  or  Protestantism  as  a  state  church.  Eng- 
land did  not  become  aggressively  Protestant  until  well 
into  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  Unfortunately  for  the 
interests  of  religion  and  of  religious  toleration,  the 
church  question  became  a  political  question,  and  when 
Spain  and  the  other  Catholic  powers  attempted  to 
overthrow  the  government  of  England  and  make  Eng- 
land dependent  upon  Spain,  patriotism  and  Protest- 
antism came  to  be  regarded  by  the  English  as  synony- 
mous terms.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  Reformation  was 
a  political  more  than  a  religious  question. 

Just  when  Day  returned  to  England  is  not  clear, 
but  it  was  before  the  death  of  Queen  Mary,  as  he  was 
a  charter  member  of  the  Stationers'  Company,  which 
was  chartered  in  the  last  year  of  her  reign,  and  pub- 
lished a  book  dated  the  same  year.  Evidently  Day 
studied  abroad.  Very  probably  that  was  his  'purpose 
in  travel,  for  we  find  that  in  1559  his  books  began  to 
show  excellence  and  they  improved  in  quality  until  we 
find  him  soon  producing  the  best  printing  which  had 
yet  been  done  in  England.  From  this  time  on  his 
work  was  marked  by  accuracy,  taste,  and  a  high  grade 
of  excellence  in  both  typography  and  presswork. 

He  was  greatly  encouraged  and  at  times  assisted  by 
Matthew  Parker,  who  was  Archbishop  of  Cantcrbury 
from  1559  to  1575.     Parker  was  by  no  means  a  great 


36  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

man,  but  he  was  just  the  sort  of  man  whom  the  auto- 
cratic Elizabeth  wished  to  have  for  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  He  was  moderate  in  his  views  and  easy- 
going in  temperament,  a  scholar  and  collector  of  beau- 
tiful things  and  a  patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
Parker  not  only  encouraged  and  patronized  Day  but 
employed  him  to  print  on  the  private  press  which  the 
Archbishop  had  set  up  at  Lambeth.  Day's  best  piece 
of  work  was  an  edition  cf  Asser's  "Life  of  Alfred  the 
Great"  which  he  printed  for  Parker  in  1574. 

Day  published  and  printed  the  first  edition  of  Foxe's 
"Book  of  Martyrs,"  a  huge  folio  volume  of  2008  pages. 
In  1578  Day  published  a  book  in  Latin  and  Greek. 
The  Greek  was  the  best  face  yet  seen  in  England  and 
was  equal  to  the  work  of  Estienne.  Other  notable 
achievements  of  Day  were  the  printing  of  the  Psal- 
ter  with  musical  notes,  the  cutting  of  Hebrew  words 
in  wood  to  be  used  in  printing  the  life  of  Bishop  Jewel, 
published  in  1573,  and  the  cutting  of  a  font  of  Saxon 
type  which  appears  to  have  been  the  first  used  in  Eng- 
land. This  font  contained  twenty-six  capitals  and 
twenty-seven  lowercase  letters.  The  capitals  consisted 
of  eighteen  old  roman  letters  and  eight  Saxon  characters, 
two  of  which  were  diphthongs.  The  lowercase  contained 
fifteen  roman  and  twelve  Saxon  characters.  Day  also 
cut  italic  types  to  match  roman,  the  first  time  this  had 
been  done.  Day's  work  was  mainly  religious,  although 
he  published  some  of  the  first  English  plays  and  some 
other  works  of  general  literature. 

As  usual  with  men  of  great  excellence,  Day  suffered 
much  from  the  antagonism  of  jealous  rivals,  but  this 
antagonism  was  not  sufficient  to  deprive  him  of  suc- 
cess.    The   excellence  of  his   work  was   rewarded   not 


THE  DARK  AGES  OF  PRINTING  37 

only  by  success  in  business  but  by  the  award  of  a  large 
number  of  privileges  which  were  sources  of  great  profit. 
We  have  seen,  however,  that  he  relinquished  a  large 
number  of  these  at  the  time  of  Wolfe's  revolt.  Those 
that  he  saved  seem  to  have  been  by  far  the  most 
profitable. 

A  few  other  printers  of  this  period  need  mention 
for  various  reasons.  The  best  work  after  that  of  Day 
was  done  by  Vautrollier.  Tottell,  whose  name  is  vari- 
ously spelled  in  the  records  of  the  time,  printed  many 
things  of  great  value  to  English  literature.  He  was 
an  enterprising  printer  of  contemporary  publications. 
Robert  Darker,  king's  printer  to  James  I,  printed  the 
statutes,  proclamations,  and  editions  of  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  of  that  period  and  deserves  to  be 
remembered  as  the  original  printer  of  the  so-called 
Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible,  published  in  161 1. 
This  English  text,  sometimes  called  the  Authorized 
and  sometimes  called  the  King  James  Version,  was  the 
only  text  of  the  English  Bible  received  among  English- 
speaking  people  until  the  revision  made  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  may  be  worth  while  to 
note  that  this  version  is  not  uncommonly  erroneously 
referred  to  as  the  St.  James  Version.  There  is  abso- 
lutely no  justification  for  this  common  error.  The 
book  was  authorized  by  King  James  and  for  that  rea- 
son is  known  as  the  Authorized  or  King  James  Ver- 
sion. King  James,  however,  was  no  saint.  The  au- 
thorization was  simply  a  license  or  permission.  Darker 
published  the  book  as  a  commercial  venture  at  his 
own  expense.  He  used  the  same  type  and  the  same 
ornaments  as  those  used  in  the  Bishop's  Bible,  an 
English  translation  published  in  1568. 


38  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

John  Norton,  another  one  of  the  group  of  printers 
favored  by  James  I,  cut  some  of  the  best  Greek  types 
which  have  ever  appeared  in  England.  He  was  a 
worthy  successor  in  this  field  of  John  Day.  William 
and  Isaac  Jaggard  printed  the  famous  folio  edition 
of  Shakespeare's  plays  in  1623.  Typographically  it 
was  a  poor  piece  of  work,  but  as  a  literary  landmark 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 

The  standards  of  Day  were  not  long  maintained. 
There  were  a  few  good  printers  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, but  for  the  most  part  they  were  poor  and  the  ten- 
dency was  decidedly  toward  deterioration.  Political  and 
religious  controversies  broke  out  afresh  in  the  reign  cf 
James  I  (1613-1625)  and  were  continued  with  increas- 
ing bitterness  until  they  finally  broke  into  the  storm 
of  civil  war  which  swept  over  England  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.  A  natural  result  of  these  conditions  was  a 
tightening  of  the  restrictions  upon  the  press,  which 
became  more  and  more  burdensome.  The  contro- 
versies called  forth  floods  of  literature,  much  of  which 
had  to  be  clandestinely  printed.  The  restrictions,  as 
we  shall  presently  see,  were  almost  unbearable  and 
the  market  was  greatly  disturbed.  The  consequence 
was  that  English  printing  reached  its  low-water  mark 
in  the  last  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  period 
which  we  are  considering,  however,  shows  one  impor- 
tant invention  which  in  its  field  was  a  distinct  im- 
provement. Copperplate  engraving  was  introduced  into 
England  in  1540,  but  it  was  a  long  time  before  it  came 
into  general  use.  Later  we  find  it  used  first  for  por- 
traits, then  for  engraved  title  pages,  some  of  which 
were  cf  great  beauty,  and  then  for  general  purposes  of 
illustration. 


THE  DARK  AGES  OF  PRINTING  39 

James  I  strengthened  the  Company  of  Stationers 
by  withdrawing  several  valuable  privileges  from  pri- 
vate persons  and  giving  them  to  the  Company.  This 
action  was  probably  taken  with  a  view  to  making  the 
Company  more  reliable  as  the  agent  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  press  laws,  which  were  not  materially 
changed  during  James's  reign.  With  the  political  and 
religious  dissensions  which  followed  the  accession  of 
Charles  I  in  1^25  came  renewed  efforts  to  meet  the 
rising  tides  of  discussion  and  to  dam  up  the  flood  of 
pamphlets,  mostly  badly  printed,  first  by  the  more 
stringent  enforcement  of  the  old  laws  and  then  by  the 
enactment  of  new  ones.  The  Company's  registers  at 
this  time  show  a  long  list  of  penalties,  including  fines, 
cropping  of  ears,  imprisonment,  and  expulsion  from 
the  Company.  It  is  only  just  to  King  Charles,  how- 
ever, to  say  that  he  did  attempt  to  foster  learning 
and  encourage  good  printing,  provided  the  learning 
were  politically  and  religiously  orthodox  according  to 
King  Charles's  standards  and  the  printers  were  ame- 
nable to  authority. 

In  this  connection  there  is  a  rather  interesting  inci- 
dent of  an  attempt  by  King  Charles  to  set  up  a  Greek 
press.  In  163 1  Barker  and  Lucas  printed  the  so- 
called  "Wicked  Bible,"  which  derived  its  name  from 
an  unfortunate  typographical  error,  the  omission  of 
the  word  "not"  in  the  seventh  commandment.  Barker 
and  Lucas  were  fined  for  their  carelessness  €300,  a 
very  heavy  fine,  equal,  if  we  make  allowance  for  the 
difference  in  the  purchasing  power  of  money,  to  about 
#12,000  to-day.  In  settlement  of  this  fine  they  were 
commanded  instead  of  paying  the  money  into  the 
treasury  to   purchase   £300  worth  of   Greek  type  and 


4o  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

to  print  one  Greek  book  a  year  at  their  own  cost  and 
risk,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  fix  the  size  of 
the  edition.  They  gladly  agreed  to  this,  but  owing 
to  the  political  conditions  which  immediately  followed 
very  little  came  of  it. 

In  1637  a  Star  Chamber  decree  was  issued  which 
marks  the  high-water  mark  of  governmental  regula- 
tions in  England.  By  this  decree  all  books  of  every 
sort  were  to  be  licensed.  Law  books  were  to  be  licensed 
by  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  and  the  Lord  Chief  Baron; 
books  dealing  with  history  by  the  Secretaries  of  State; 
books  on  heraldry  by  the  Earl  Marshal;  books  on  any 
other  subjects  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the 
Bishop  of  London,  or  the  Chancellors  or  Vice-Chan- 
cellors  of  the  two  universities.  Two  copies  of  every 
book  submitted  for  publication  were  to  be  handed  to 
the  licenser,  one  of  which  he  was  to  keep  for  future 
reference.  Catalogues  of  books  imported  into  the  coun- 
try were  to  be  sent  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
or  to  the  Bishop  of  London,  and  no  consignments  of 
foreign  books  were  to  be  opened  until  the  representa- 
tives of  one  of  these  dignitaries  and  of  the  Stationers' 
Company  were  present. 

It  was  further  decreed  that  no  merchant  or  book- 
seller should  import  from  abroad  any  book  printed 
in  the  English  language.  The  main  purpose  of  this 
enactment  was  probably  to  prevent  evasion  of  the 
English  press  laws  by  the  importation  from  abroad 
of  books  objectionable  to  the  government.  It  was 
also,  although  this  purpose  was  probably  secondary, 
intended  to  protect  England  from  foreign  competition. 
The  name  of  the  printer,  the  author,  and  the  publisher, 
and  the  place  of  publication  and  sale  were  to  be  placed 


THE  DARK  AGES  OF  PRINTING  41 

in  every  book.  No  person  was  permitted  to  erect  a 
printing  press  or  to  let  any  premises  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  on  printing  without  first  giving  notice  to 
the  Company,  and  no  carpenter  was  permitted  to  make 
a  press  without  similar  notice. 

The  number  of  master  printers  was  limited  to  twenty. 
Every  master  printer  had  to  give  a  bond  of  £300  for 
good  behavior.  The  Master  and  the  Wardens  of 
the  Stationers'  Company  might  have  three  presses  each 
and  three  apprentices.  No  other  printer  could  have 
more  than  two  presses.  A  master  printer  on  the  livery 
(a  member  of  the  Company)  might  have  two  appren- 
tices, others  only  one.  The  master  printers  were  t© 
give  work  to  journeymen  when  requested  to  do  so. 
This  enactment  was  not  made  out  of  any  tenderness 
for  unemployed  journeymen  but  for  the  reason  that 
the  unemployed  journeyman  was  always  tempted  to 
pick  up  an  occasional  shilling  by  printing  unlicensed 
or  objectionable  books.  It  was  considered  desirable 
to  keep  him  employed  where  his  work  could  be  super- 
vised. All  reprints  had  to  be  licensed  exactly  the  same 
as  new  publications.  The  Company  was  confirmed 
in  its  right  of  search.  This  meant  not  simply  a  right 
of  supervision  of  printing  offices,  but  the  right  to  search 
any  place  where  it  might  be  suspected  that  printing 
was  being  carried  on.  One  copy  of  every  book  had  to 
be  filed  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford.  Only  four 
type-founders  were  permitted  to  carry  on  busin< 
Books  could  be  sold  only  by  booksellers.  The  pun- 
ishments imposed  for  infractions  of  these  laws  included 
destruction  of  stock,  fines,  imprisonment,  and  whipping 
at  the  cart's  tail.  The  allowance  of  type-founders, 
small  as  it  was,  seemed  to  be  ample,  in  spite  of  the 


42  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

fact  that  English  type-founders  had  now  ceased  to  cut 
type.  English  type-founding  had  generally  been  poor 
up  to  this  time  and  was  to  continue  so  for  some  time 
to  come.  What  new  type  came  into  use  in  the  Eng- 
lish printing  offices  was  mainly  bought  on  the  conti- 
nent. 

Up  to  this  time  a  great  deal  of  printing  had  been 
done  on  the  continent  for  the  English  market.  The 
works  of  the  Fathers,  the  classics,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  serious  publications  of  the  time,  being 
printed  mostly  in  Latin,  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
continental  printers.  With  their  facilities  for  the 
production  and  distribution  of  books  they  held  the 
market  so  securely  that  English  printers  did  not  even 
attempt  competition.  In  addition  to  that  a  great 
deal  of  printing  in  the  English  language  for  the  Eng- 
lish market  continued  to  be  done  on  the  continent. 
As  has  already  been  indicated,  a  good  deal  of  this  was 
political  and  religious  and  could  not  safely  be  pub- 
lished in  England.  A  considerable  quantity  of  it,  how- 
ever, was  work  in  general  literature,  which  was  done 
better  than  most  English  work  and  cheaper  than  Eng- 
lish work  of  a  corresponding  quality.  The  act  of  1637 
shut  off  a  great  deal  of  this  foreign  printing,  especially 
so  much  of  it  as  was  controversial. 

Further  legislation  was  enacted  in  order  to  develop 
English  printing.  For  a  long  time  printing  was  not 
an  English  industry.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
although  Caxton  was  English  born  most  of  the  early 
printing  was  done  by  foreigners  who  came  to  England 
for  that  purpose,  and  for  a  long  time  there  was  a  very 
large  foreign  element  in  the  industry.  In  1523  a  law 
was  passed  that  no  alien  engaged  in  the  printing  busi- 


THE  DARK  AGES  OF  PRINTIXC  43 


ness  in  England  could  take  any  but  English-born  ap- 
prentices. In  1529  an  act  was  passed  that  no  alien 
not  already  naturalized  could  set  up'  any  house  or 
shop  for  the  exercise  of  any  handicraft  in  England. 
In  1534  it  was  further  enacted  that  no  books  should 
be  imported  bound  and  ready  for  sale  and  that  no 
unnaturalized  alien  could  sell  foreign  printed  books 
except  at  wholesale. 

The  decree  of  1637  was  fortunately  not  long-lived. 
The  political  ascendency  of  Parliament  soon  began  to 
be  felt  and  in  1641  the  Star  Chamber  was  abolished. 
While  the  abolition  of  this  court  did  not  directly  affect 
the  decree  of  1637,  indirectly  it  made  it  practically 
void.  For  a  short  while  Parliament  permitted  the 
decree  to  lapse  and  left  the  printers  very  much  to  them- 
selves. This  was  not  because  Parliament  was  any 
more  liberal  than  King  Charles  in  its  views  on  the 
subject  of  printing.  It  was  only  that  while  Parliament 
was  strong  enough  to  suffer  the  law  to  be  evaded  and 
so  to  give  free  rein  to  the  scribbling  propensities  of 
its  supporters,  it  was  not  yet  strong  enough  to  muzzle 
the  writers  on  the  other  side.  Parliament  was  also  very 
busy  with  other  concerns  and  for  the  time  being  was 
content  to  let  the  printers  alone. 

The  result  was  an  enormous  flood  of  printing,  most 
of  it  worse  than  ever.  An  examination  of  the  publica- 
tions of  the  time  shows  that  everything  that  would 
go  on  a  press  was  dug  up  and  utilized.  \\  e  find  in  use 
old  type  and  blocks  which  had  formed  part  of  the 
stock  of  Wynkyn  de  Worde  and  Pynson.  As  soon, 
however,  as  Parliament  got  well  seated  in  power  it 
proceeded  to  deal  with  printers  along  the  old  lines. 
In  1643  it  recnacted  the  decree  of  1637  with   the  impor- 


44  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

tant  modification  that  the  number  of  printers  was  not 
limited.  In  1649  sixty  printers  in  London  and  the  two 
university  towns  gave  the  bonds  for  good  conduct 
required  by  law  as  a  requisite  to  carrying  on  the  busi- 
ness. It  will  be  remembered  that  the  decree  of  1637 
limited  the  number  in  London  to  twenty,  with  one  in 
each  of  the  universities.  This  act  called  forth  one  of 
the  noblest  pieces  of  literature  in  the  English  language, 
Milton's  "Areopagitica,"  or  plea  for  unlicensed  print- 
ing, in  which  Milton  brings  all  the  resources  of  his  great 
learning  and  matchless  literary  skill  to  the  defence 
of  the  freedom  of  the  press.  The  plea,  of  course,  fell 
on  deaf  ears  for  the  time,  but  it  remains  one  of  the 
jewels  of  English  literature.  The  Parliamentary  gov- 
ernment held  the  act  as  a  weapon  which  could  be  used 
in  case  of  need.  It  was  strictly  enforced  with  regard 
to  political  and  religious  books  and  newspapers.  It 
seems  to  have  been  very  little  enforced  outside  these 
limits. 

When  Cromwell  took  the  reins  of  power  as  Lord 
Protector  of  England  he  enforced  the  press  laws  very 
strictly.  Cromwell  was  a  masterful  man  and  was  not 
disposed  to  permit  criticism  of  his  person  and  govern- 
ment or  discussion  of  matters  of  public  policy  upon 
which  the  government  had  decided.  On  the  death 
of  Cromwell  there  followed  a  period  cf  political  uncer- 
tainty during  which  the  enforcement  of  the  act  was 
relaxed,  only  to  be  renewed  at  the  accession  of  King 
Charles  II  in  1660. 

Shortly  after  the  accession  of  King  Charles  a  group 
of  the  best  printers  unsuccessfully  petitioned  for  the 
incorporation  of  a  Company  of  Printers  as  distinguished 
from  the  Stationers.     They  alleged  that  the  Company 


THE  DARK  AGES  OF  PRINTING  45 

of  Stationers  was  controlled  by  the  booksellers  and 
that  they  cheapened  printing  and  impoverished  the 
printers,  that  the  Company  of  Stationers  was  so  large 
that  only  old  men  could  attain  to  the  dignity  of  masters 
or  wardens,  and  that  only  once  in  ten  or  twelve  years 
was  it  possible  for  a  journeyman  printer  to  become  a 
master  printer.  They  claimed  that  a  new  Company 
would  free  the  printing  industry  from  these  shackles, 
that  it  wrould  improve  the  quality  of  printing,  and 
that  it  would  secure  for  the  government  better  supervi- 
sion of  the  output  of  the  press.  This  last  was  probably 
a  bait  to  the  hook.  The  petition  was  not  granted, 
however,  and  things  went  on  in  the  old  fashion. 

In  1662  a  new  act  similar  to  the  preceding  ones  was 
passed,  containing  only  one  important  variation  by 
which  the  privilege  of  having  a  printing  press  was 
extended  to  the  city  of  York.  This  act  was  for  a  time 
very  strictly  enforced.  The  police  power  necessary 
to  the  enforcement  of  the  act  was  taken  away  from 
the  Stationers'  Company  and  entrusted  to  Sir  Roger 
Lestrange,  who  was  appointed  censor  of  the  press. 
He  was  given  control  of  the  printing  office  and  power 
of  search.  With  a  few  reserved  exceptions  the  entire 
licensing  of  books  wras  placed  in  his  hands  and  he  was 
given  a  monopoly  of  the  publication  of  news.  Sir 
Roger  seems  to  have  taken  himself  quite  seriously 
and  to  have  discharged  his  functions  for  some  years 
with  a  considerable  degree  of  efficiency.  Many  books, 
however,  were  published  without  licenses.  Some  were 
published  clandestinely,  while  it  is  probable  that  Sir 
Roger  was  more  concerned  to  exercise  the  powers  of 
office  for  the  suppression  of  political  and  religious 
controversy   and    for   the   protection   of   his    monopoly 


46  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

than  for  the  control  of  pure  literature.  The  act  was 
reenacted  in  1685  for  a  period  of  seven  years.  It  was 
then  reenacted  for  a  period  of  one  year  and  finally 
disappeared  in  1694. 

In  spite  of  the  wretched  condition  of  printing  at 
this  period  a  few  lights  appear  in  the  gloom.  Thomas 
Roycroft  did  some  very  excellent  printing.  He  achieved 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  tasks  which  had  yet 
been  accomplished  by  an  English  printer  in  the  pub- 
lication of  his  famous  Polyglot  Bible.  This  Bible  gave 
the  text  in  Hebrew,  Latin,  Greek,  Chaldean,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  Samaritan,  Persian,  and  Ethiopic.  Of  course, 
these  languages  did  not  all  appear  in  all  parts  of  the 
Bible.  The  Greek,  Latin,  and  Arabic  texts  appear 
throughout.  The  Hebrew  and  Chaldean  appear  in  the 
Old  Testament,  the  Ethiopic  in  the  Psalms  and  New 
Testament  only,  and  the  Persian  only  in  the  New 
Testament.  The  types  used  came  from  four  foundries, 
one  of  them  being  a  face  cut  by  John  Day.  The  work 
was  published  in  six  great  volumes,  pages  16  x  10  inches. 
The  text  was  so  arranged  that  when  the  Bible  was 
opened  at  any  point  each  double  page  showed  all  the 
languages  used  for  that  particular  passage.  The  first 
volume  was  published  in  September  of  1654.  The 
second  appeared  in  1655,  the  third  in  1656,  and  the 
other  three  in  1657.  Cromwell  encouraged  the  work 
by  ordering  the  admission  of  the  paper  duty  free. 

In  1688  the  largest  office  in  London  was  that  of 
James  Fletcher,  who  had  five  presses  and  employed 
thirteen  journeymen  and  two  apprentices.  One  of  the 
printers  of  this  period,  John  Barber,  arrived  at  the  dis- 
tinction of  Lord  Mayor  of  London.  He  was  a  very 
popular  Lord  Mayor  and  he  must  have  been  very  pros- 


THE  DARK  AGES  OF     PRINTING         47 

perous  in  business  or  he  would  not  have  acquired  the 
means  necessary  to  holding  the  position.  He  was  in  no 
way  remarkable  as  a  printer,  however. 

During  this  period  there  were  four  type-founders  of 
importance — Joseph  Moxon,  the  Andrew,;  broth < 
the  Glover  brothers,  and  Thomas  James.  The  most 
famous  of  these  was  James  Moxon.  Primarily  a  man  of 
science,  he  was  distinguished  as  a  mathematician  and 
hydrographer.  To  these  interests  he  added  type- 
founding.  Like  Durer  in  Germany  and  Geoffry  Tory 
in  France,  he  worked  out  a  theory  of  type  design  in 
exact  mathematical  proportions,  but  like  these  and 
other  attempts  of  the  same  sort  it  was  not  successful. 
While  it  is  true  that  there  must  be  proportion  in  type- 
faces, it  is  also  true  that  a  beautiful  and  legible  type- 
face must  have  qualities  ether  than  a  mere  mathe- 
matical exactness.  Moxon  is  known  chiefly  by  his 
important  work,  "Mechanick  Exercises."  Part  II  of 
this  book  is  an  exhaustive  study  of  printing  and  type- 
founding.  So  thorough  was  Moxon's  study  of  these  sub- 
jects and  so  accurate  his  presentation  that  the  work  is 
yet  a  standard  authority  on  many  fundamental  points. 

Joseph  and  Robert  Andrews,  although  not  very  good 
workmen,  made  an  extensive  variety  cf  type  and  found 
a  good  sale  for  it.  They  used  the  Moxon  fonts,  but 
added  to  them  new  roman  and  italic  fonts,  learned 
fonts,  so  called,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Irish.  James  and 
Thomas  Glover  cast  two  fonts  of  black  letter  from  the 
matrices  cut  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  and  some  foreign 
letters.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  undertaken  com- 
petition with  Andrews  and  James  in  the  ordinary  forms 
of  letter.  Thomas  James,  who  shared  with  the  An- 
drews  brothers   a   large  portion  of  the   business,   used 


48  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

two  sets  of  matrices  cut  in  Holland.  Of  course,  these 
few  type-founders  hardly  made  a  beginning  of  supply- 
ing the  English  printers  with  type.  The  greater  part 
of  the  printing  of  this  period  was  done  from  type  im- 
ported from  Holland.  It  was  in  order  to  compete  with 
this  imported  type  that  James  obtained  possession 
of  the  two  fonts  of  Dutch  matrices  which  were  the 
backbone  of  his  type-foundry. 

After  the  Restoration  of  1660,  we  find  the  Oxford 
Press  rapidly  advancing  to  the  commanding  position 
in  English  printing  which  it  came  to  occupy  in  later 
years  and  still  holds.  Oxford  had  been  a  centre  of 
royal  influence  in  the  civil  wars.  King  Charles  I  held 
court  there  for  some  time  and  the  university  was 
always  staunchly  loyal  to  the  Stuarts.  Naturally  it 
enjoyed  the  sunshine  cf  royal  favor  when  the  Stuarts 
came  back  in  the  person  of  Charles  II. 

In  1667  Dr.  John  Fell,  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity and  afterward  Bishop  of  Oxford,  gave  the 
University  a  complete  type-foundry  with  matrices  of 
roman,  italic,  black-letter  Saxon,  and  several  Ori- 
ental tongues.  Ten  years  later  Francis  Junius  added 
to  the  equipment  of  the  foundry  a  splendid  collection 
of  out-of-the-way  types,  including  Runic,  Gothic,  Saxon, 
Icelandic,  Danish,  and  Swedish,  together  with  a  con- 
siderable number  of  types  of  the  more  common  sorts. 
This  equipment  of  type  for  learned  work  and  foreign 
language  printing  enabled  the  Oxford  Press  to  take  a 
position  without  a  rival  as  a  producer  of  learned  lit- 
erature. The  presswork  and  composition  done  at 
Oxford  were  well  maintained  on  the  level  of  their  type 
equipment,  so  that  the  Oxford  University  Press  soon 
came  to  hold  a  unique  position- 


CHAPTER  IV 

The  Eighteenth  Century:  the  Period  of 
Transition 

'T^HE  eighteenth  century  was  a  very  important  time 
■*■  in  the  history  of  English  printing.  It  was  the 
period  of  the -changes  and  inventions  which  led  over 
from  the  medievalism  of  the  seventeenth  century 
to  the  modernism  of  the  nineteenth.  Three  special 
changes  took  place:  first,  the  invention  of  stereotyping; 
second,  the  rise  of  the  modern  publisher;  and,  third,  the 
dawn  of  modern  ideas  in  types  and  typography. 

The  story  of  the  invention  of  stereotyping  is  the 
tale  only  too  common  in  industry  of  the  inventor* who 
is  ahead  of  his  time,  the  selfish  and  thoughtless  crowd 
who  opposed  him,  the  apparent  failure  of  the  enter- 
prise, and  final  success  for  the  idea  when  the  inventor 
is  no  longer  alive  to  enjoy  his  triumph.  About  1720 
it  occurred  to  a  Scotchman  named  Ged  that  it  ought 
not  to  be  difficult  to  cast  type  by  the  page.  He  hit 
upon  the  idea  of  making  a  plaster-of-paris  mould  of  the 
type-set  page  and  from  it  casting  the  plates.  As  usual 
in  such  cases,  he  needed  a  partner  with  capital  and 
some  technical  knowledge.  In  1727  he  associated 
himself  with  an  Edinburgh  printer,  who  soon  became 
alarmed  at  the  apparent  prospective  cost  and  with- 
drew from  the  enterprise.  Soon  after  this  Ged  got 
acquainted  with  a  London  stationer  named  William 
Fenner.  Fenner  in  turn  introduced  him  to  Thomas 
James,    the    type-founder,    and    the    three    associated 

49 


5o  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

themselves  in  partnership  for  the  development  of  the 
new  process.  For  some  reason  James  proved  treacher- 
ous. Apparently  the  investment  which  he  was  making 
should  have  served  to  keep  him  faithful.  Whether 
he  became  alarmed  by  a  fancied  danger  to  his  business 
or  was  frightened  or  bought  off  by  the  printers  is  not 
clear.  At  any  rate,  his  cooperation  was  only  half- 
hearted. Instead  of  furnishing  Ged  with  the  best  of 
type  from  which  to  make  his  moulds  he  furnished  him 
with  very  poor  type  and  his  workmen  wilfully  damaged 
the  forms. 

While  this  was  going  on  Ged  was  appointed  printer 
to  the  University  of  Cambridge,  where  he  met  with 
the  same  experiences  at  the  hands  of  the  printers. 
Under  great  difficulties  and  discouragements  he  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  two  prayer  books  which  were 
printed  from  his  plates,  but  the  animosity  of  the  printers 
was  so  violent  that  the  authorities  suppressed  the 
books  and  destroyed  the  plates.  The  reason  for  this 
animosity  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  journeymen  had 
not  yet  recovered  from  the  fear  and  danger  caused  by 
the  old  statutes  which  had  limited  the  number  of  shops 
without  limiting  the  number  of  journeymen,  thus  caus- 
ing extensive  lack  of  employment.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered also  that  the  old  customs  were  still  in  force  which 
limited  editions  and  prohibited  keeping  type  standing. 
It  looked  to  the  printers  as  if  the  invention  of  a  proc- 
ess which  would  fix  type  by  pages  and  make  possible 
indefinite  reprints  from  one  setting  of  type  was  a  most 
serious  threat  to  the  industry.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  the  knowledge  and  the  conditions  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  we  shall  have  to  admit 
that  their  fears  were  well  founded.      They  could  not 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  51 

possibly  foresee  the  enormous  increase  of  printing 
which  was  to  make  the  stereotype  indispensable. 

To  complete  the  tale  of  his  misfortune,  Ged's  part- 
ners, James  and  Fenner,  now  fell  out  between  them- 
selves. The  partnership  was  broken  up  and  Ged,  dis- 
couraged and  bankrupt,  went  back  to  Edinburgh. 
His  discouragement  was  not  permanent,  however,  and 
he  made  another  attempt,  but  not  a  printer  could  be 
found  in  Edinburgh  who  would  set  type  for  him. 
Ged's  son  learned  composition  and  set  up  a  few  books, 
working  by  night,  which  were  printed  at  Newcastle. 
Ged  died  in  1749,  apparently  defeated.  Later  in  the 
century,  however,  his  work  was  taken  up  and  made 
practical  by  Didot  in  France  and  his  invention  developed 
to  great  proportions. 

The  early  printers  were  their  own  publishers  and 
booksellers.  Previous  to  the  invention  of  typography 
the  maker  and  seller  of  the  book  were  not  ordinarily 
the  same  person.  It  was  only  natural  that  in  a  short 
time  the  stationers,  that  is  to  say,  the  sellers  of  manu- 
script books  and  of  writing  materials,  should  sell  printed 
books'  also.  Both  the  printer  and  bookseller  were  inter- 
ested in  an  attempt  to  cut  out  one  profit.  If  the  printer 
sold  to  the  bookseller  and  the  bookseller  sold  to  the 
public,  both  must  profit  by  the  transaction.  If  the 
printer  could  sell  directly  to  the  public  or  the  book- 
seller could  print  his  own  books,  obviously  the  whole 
or  the  greater  part  of  both  of  these  profits  might  go  to 
one  man.  In  this  competition,  however,  the  book- 
seller had  three  advantages.  One  came  from  the  fact 
that  the  carrying  on  of  a  printing  plant  was  a  busi- 
ness enterprise  and  the  additional  care  of  maintaining 
a   selling  organization   for   marketing  books   with   the 


52  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

public  was  more  than  most  printers  were  equal  to. 
The  second  was  that  the  bookseller  could  buy  a  whole 
edition  or  contract  for  its  publication.  In  this  way 
while  he  reduced  the  printer's  profits  he  also  greatly 
reduced  his  risks.  The  third  was  that  privilege  and 
copyright  attached  themselves  to  manuscripts.  If  the 
bookseller  bought  the  manuscript  it  could  not  be  printed 
except  by  arrangement  with  him.  When  the  book- 
seller became  the  owner  of  manuscripts,  or  became 
sufficiently  confident  of  his  power  to  market  books  to 
employ  the  printer  to  produce  such  books  as  he  could 
use,  he  became  a  publisher  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
word.  He  might  either  set  up  a  printing  establish- 
ment of  his  own  or  he  might  have  his  work  done  by 
contract  by  one  or  more  outside  printers. 

The  business  methods  of  the  old  printers  were  very 
simple.  We  have  seen  how  SchoefTer  did  the  first 
piece  of  commercial  printing  when  he  struck  off  for 
distribution  a  list  of  the  books  which  he  had  on  sale. 
We  have  seen  how  Jenson  and  Aldus  and  the  other 
early  printers  sold  their  books  at  their  printing  offices, 
advertised  them  by  correspondence,  and  sent  them  to 
the  Frankfort  Fair  and  other  similar  places.  The 
Plantin  workshop,  which  is  still  maintained  as  the 
Plantin  Museum  in  Antwerp,  still  shows  the  little 
salesroom  which  was  part  of  the  original  business. 
Caxton,  with  his  sound  business  sense  and  trained 
business  habits,  had  a  way  of  assuring  or  forecasting  be- 
forehand the  sales  of  his  books,  thus  anticipating  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  the  methods  of  the  modern  publishers. 

It  soon  became  the  habit  of  the  printers  to  open 
shops  apart. from  their  printing  offices  for  the  sale  of 
their    productions.     These    salesrooms    developed    into 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  53 

book-shops  through  carrying  in  stock  the  books  of 
other  printers.  In  the  old-world  cities  trades  had  a 
habit  of  congregating  in  one  place.  If  a  man  wanted 
to  open  a  book-shop,  instead  of  trying  to  find  a  good 
location  where  there  were  no  other  book-shops  very 
near  at  hand,  he  tried  to  get  a  location  as  near  as  he 
could  to  all  the  other  book-shops.  In  this  way  certain 
streets  or  quarters  of  the  cities,  and  particularly  of 
London,  were  given  up  to  certain  industries.  The 
centre  of  the  English  book  trade  of  the  seventeenth 
century  was  the  churchyard  of  the  old  St.  Paul's  Church. 
This  was  the  smaller  church  which  occupied  the  site 
where  now  stands  the  magnificent  St.  Paul's  Cathedral 
built  by  the  great  architect  Sir  Christopher  Wren  after 
the  fire  of  1660. 

A  glimpse  of  the  way  in  which  the  business  was 
done  may  be  obtained  from  the  following  description 
of  John  Day's  book-shop:  "He  got  framed  a  neat 
handsome  shop.  It  was  but  little  and  low,  a  flat  roof, 
and  leaded  [covered  with  sheets  of  lead]  like  a  ter- 
race, railed  and  posted,  fit  for  men  to  stand  upon  in 
any  triumph  cr  show."  Evidently  thrifty  John  Day 
was  not  above  turning  an  honest  penny  by  renting  the 
roof  of  his  shop  to  those  who  desired  to  see  the  Lord 
Mayor's  show  or  some  other  glittering  procession.  All 
processions  of  any  importance  passed  St.  Paul's.  We 
are  told  that  this  shop  cost  £40  or  £50,  which  would 
be  equivalent,  making  allowance  for  the  difference  in 
the  purchasing  power  of  money,  to  from  #1200  to  #1600 
to-day.  We  are  told  that  £150,000  worth  of  books 
were  burned  at  St.  Paul's  churchyard  and  in  the  crypt 
of  the  church  in  the  fire  of  1666.  This  represents  no 
less  than  #4,000,000  in  our  present  money. 


x  \  .  [\TG  IN  ENG1  \\P 


.    i     -    e        -  .  .       .•  ■      Leans  oi   th<    s  - 

pos  s  . ,   bulletin  board. 

ere  put   up  the  titles  oi  new 

s  '-  >S  9  brief  bit  of  description. 

.   .    e    .    .  bound,  st  tched,  or  in  sin . 

\  ered   boards, 

-    interact  the  tendency 

...    and  other  textiles,  often 

:    embroidery.      The    books 

ever,   were  ordinarily   in 

r  binding       The  more  wealthy  and 

:    --  -    .        :  buyers  red   to  buy  their  books 

.    I  tem  placed  in  bindings  which 

nth   their   coats   of    arms   or   with 

-  It  7 tr^:nal  nature.    The  stitched  books 

t  first  ting  pierced  through  the  sheets 

with  a  string.     In  1586  a  limit 

nd  thickness  of  books  which  might 

be  sold  in  tl      form.    Those  beyond  the  limit  must  be 

ar  binder's  machine  and  made  ready 

put  on.     Sewed  books  were  often 

01    pasteboard    to    preserve   them 

.  .1.      This   was   substantially   what 

...  .  .      .    .     .    .      ■   ■    ■ 

'       een  printers,  book- 

•:  and  irregular.     Up 

' '  ntury    there   was 

right  em  epl   registration 

but    1  hat    regisi ration 

owner    oi    the    manus<  ript,    who 

'•'     arily    the    author,     Originally    ihcse 

v  erally  the  printers  because  the  printeri 

hat  just    been   pointed  out,   were 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION'  55 

the  same.  Later,  as  the  ascendency  of  the  booksellers 
increased,  it  was  they  who  held  the  manuscripts.  Some- 
times due  regard  was  paid  to  the  rights  of  the  author 
and  sometimes  not.  This  appears  to  have  depended 
entirely  upon  the  arrangements  which  author  and  pub- 
lisher were  able  to  make.  In  many  cases  the  author 
got  decidedly  the  worst  of  the  bargain.  The  protec- 
tion which  the  Company  undertook  to  extend  was 
limited  to  the  holder  of  the  copyright.  The  situation 
was  further  complicated  by  the  survival  of  privileges 
or  monopolies  of  various  sorts. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  with  the 
passing  away  of  the  mediaeval  conditions  which  had 
previously  prevailed,  the  Company's  control  of  the 
situation  broke  down.  When  the  printing  acts  finally 
went  into  disuse  in  1594,  as  has  already  been  described, 
nobody  had  any  protection.  Everything  in  the  way  of 
copyright  was  entirely  abolished.  This  condition  was 
soon  felt  to  be  intolerable  and  in  1709  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment provided  a  system  of  copyright  and  recognized  the 
author's  right  to  his  work.  By  this  act  the  owners 
of  old  books  and  unpublished  manuscripts,  whether 
they  were  the  authors  or  not,  had  proprietary  right 
in  them  for  twenty-one  years,  beginning  April  10, 
1 7 10.  This  part  of  the  act,  of  course,  was  a  temporary 
provision  for  existing  conditions.  New  books  were  to 
be  controlled  by  the  author  for  fourteen  years.  If  at 
the  end  of  that  time  the  author  was  still  living  his  copy- 
right might  be  renewed  for  fourteen  years  more.  Within 
the  limits  during  which  the  copyright  was  valid  it  could 
be  transferred.  Such  transference  did  not  act  as  an 
extension.  The  copyright  was  secured  by  registration 
with  the  Stationers'  Company  as  before. 


56  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

This  was  really  a  booksellers'  act,  as  at  that  time 
they  held  nearly  all  of  the  copyrights  and  doubtless 
expected  to  be  able  to  secure  all  the  new  ones  of  any 
value.  That  was  what  happened  at  first.  The  pro- 
tection given  to  the  authors  by  the  new  act  greatly 
altered  the  terms  upon  which  the  booksellers  or  pub- 
lishers could  obtain  the  manuscripts.  It  was  some 
years  before  the  authors  came  to  a  full  realization  of 
their  rights  under  the  new  law.  When  they  did  arrive 
at  this  knowledge  authorship  as  a  profession  became 
possible.  For  a  long  time  authors  sold  their  manu- 
scripts outright  to  the  publishers.  The  royalty  system, 
under  which  the  author  shares  the  profits  of  the  work, 
was  a  later  development. 

From  this  time  on  new  work  was  controlled  by  the 
authors  and  the  use  of  their  manuscripts  could  be 
obtained  only  by  some  sort  of  bargain.  All  old  work 
not  covered  by  copyrights  existing  in  1709,  and  after 
173 1  all  work  upon  which  copyrights  had  expired, 
might  be  freely  printed  by  any  one.  From  that  time 
on  the  publication  of  such  works  became,  as  it  is  now, 
purely  a  manufacturing  proposition.  Whether  or  not 
such  books  shall  be  published  and  whether  or  not  the 
publication  is  a  commercial  success  depend  entirely 
upon  the  soundness  of  the  publisher's  judgment  and 
the  accuracy  with  which  he  gauges  the  popular  demand 
for  standard  literature  at  a  given  price. 

The  publication  of  new  work  depends  upon  a  variety 
of  circumstances.  The  publisher  pays  either  in  cash 
or  in  royalty,  or  both,  according  to  the  prospects  of 
sale.  In  case  of  authors  of  reputation  this  prospect 
can  be  reasonably  well  gauged.  In  case  of  unknown 
authors  the  publisher  must  take  a   risk  if  he  buys   a 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  57 


manuscript.  In  many  cases  the  publisher  will  require 
a  guarantee  against  loss  on  an  edition  of  a  certain  size. 
He  may  require  this  guarantee  because  he  has  doubts 
about  the  success  of  the  work  or  because  it  is  a  book 
of  such  limited  circulation,  although  it  may  be  of  the 
most  important  character,  that  the  publication  will 
not  be  commercially  profitable.  Of  course,  if  an  author 
is  determined  to  see  himself  in  print  and  no  publisher 
will  take  his  work  on  any  terms,  he  can  hire  a  printer 
to  make  up  an  edition,  can  get  it  copyrighted,  and  can 
dispose  of  it  in  such  way  as  he  may  find  possible  or 
desirable. 

From  this  legislation  really  dates  the  differentiation 
of  the  trade.  This  was  a  matter  of  economic  growth 
rather  than  of  legislation.  The  author  might  print 
and  publish  and  sell  his  work,  the  printer  might  pub- 
lish and  sell,  the  bookseller  might  print  and  publish, 
but  in  either  case  there  was  an  added  risk  combined 
with  a  possibility  of  greater  profit.  Most  persons  are 
content  with  smaller  profits,  providing  they  can  be 
released  from  risk.  Under  the  system  which  now  de- 
veloped the  publisher  assumed  the  risk.  In  that  way 
he  became  the  patron  of  both  author  and  printer. 

The  first  of  the  modern  type  of  publishers  was  Jacob 
Tonson,  the  elder,  who  began  business  in  1678.  A 
consideration  of  the  development  of  the  publishing 
industry  would  take  us  too  far  afield  and  it  will  be 
touched  upon  only  as  it  directly  concerns  the  devel- 
opment of  printing. 

About  1720  a  forward  step  was  taken  in  the  devel- 
opment of  English  printing  by  the  entrance  of  William 
Caslon  into  the  field  of  type-founding.  Born  in  1692, 
we  know  little  of  his  early  life.     In  1706  we  hnd   him, 


58  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

then  twenty-four  years  old,  carrying  on  a  little  business 
in  London  as  an  engraver  of  gun  locks  and  a  maker  of 
binders'  tools.  Through  this  last  he  came  in  contact  with 
printers,  particularly  John  Walter  and  William  Bowyer, 
the  younger,  two  of  the  well-known  London  printers 
of  that  day.  His  connection  with  the  printing  trade, 
his  artistic  skill,  and  his  training  as  an  engraver  led 
him  to  undertake  the  designing  and  cutting  of  type, 
in  which  he  was  encouraged  by  his  printer  friends. 
His  type  was  immediately  successful  not  only  in  Eng- 
land but  on  the  continent,  which  had  hitherto  never 
looked  to  England  for  type.  His  type  was  very  legible 
and  had  a  certain  air  of  distinction  which  made  it 
much  superior  to  any  English  type  made  at  that  time. 
His  roman  was  regular,  graceful,  and  well  proportioned, 
a  worthy  successor  of  the  types  of  Jenson  and  Aldus. 
His  italic  was  almost  as  good  as  his  roman.  The  influ- 
ence of  Caslon  upon  English  and  afterwauds  upon 
American  type-cutting  has  been  very  great.  Many 
of  the  types  in  most  common  use  are  either  Caslon's 
letter  or  some  modification  of  it.  This  book  is  printed 
in  one  of  the  Caslon  types.  For  many  years  no  Eng- 
lish type-founder  could  compete  with  him  successfully. 
The  principal  types  of  distinction  which  were  then 
in  the  field  were  three,  that  of  Giambattista  Bodoni, 
that  produced  by  the  Didot  family,  and  that  made  in 
Holland.  Bodoni  type  was  characterized  by  long 
ascenders  and  descenders,  over-long  serifs,  and  pro- 
tracted hair  lines.  This  general  style  of  letter  was 
very  common  in  Italy  for  a  long  time  both  in  typog- 
raphy and  in  manuscript.  In  the  last  century  the 
so-called  Italian  hand,  a  handwriting  showing  these 
characteristics,  was  for  a   long  time  very  fashionable, 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  59 

especially  among  ladies.  The  Didot  type  was  char- 
acterized by  sharp  contrasts,  the  thick  lines  being  very 
thick  and  the  thin  lines  being  razor-edged  in  their  thin- 
ness. The  Dutch  type  was  rounded  and  regular  with 
very  little  contrast  between  the  thick  and  the  thin 
lines.  Caslon's  type  was  a  rather  successful  effort  to 
retain  the  good  qualities  and  avoid  the  defects  of  all 
three.  Avoiding  the  exaggeration  of  Bodoni,  it  retained, 
though  in  modified  form,  the  contrasts  of  Didot  and 
preserved  the  regularity  of  the  Dutch  without  its 
monotony  and  lack  of  contrast.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  century  poor  paper,  poor  presswork,  and  poor 
ink  led  to  an  attempt  to  get  clearness  and  legibility 
by  thickening  the  type  lines.  The  result  was  the  intro- 
duction, about  1800,  of  a  very  ugly,  fat-faced  type 
wrhich  had  wide  use.  Mrs.  Caslon,  a  widow,  who  was 
then  in  charge  of  the  Caslon  foundry,  attempted  to 
meet  these  demands  by  thickening  the  lines  of  the 
Caslon  type,  producing  a  modified  form  which  had 
considerable  success  for  some  time.  The  old  Caslon 
was  revived  by  Whittingham  about  1845.  The  better 
paper,  ink,  and  presswork  of  those  days  revealed  anew 
the  excellence  of  the  Caslon  type  and  since  that  time  it 
has  never  lost  favor. 

An  interesting  figure  of  this  period  is  Samuel  Rich- 
ardson (1689-1761).  Richardson  was  a  very  good 
printer  and  did  a  considerable  business,  but  was  tempted 
into  authorship  and  became  one  of  the  first  of  the 
modern  English  novelists.  He  wrote,  printed,  and 
published  three  novels  which  yet  survive,  "Pamela," 
"Clarissa  Harlowe,"  and  "Sir  Charles  Grandison." 
The  new  vein  which  these  novels  struck  in  English 
literature    was    immediately    successful.      The    novels, 


6o  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 


though  very  long  and  written  in  a  style  which  to  mod- 
ern readers  seems  anything  but  lively,  were  not  only 
widely  successful  themselves,  but  were  immediately 
imitated,  and  the  good  old  printer's  modest  efforts 
were  the  beginning  of  the  flood  of  novels  which  is  now 
poured  out  from  the  press.  Because  Richardson  was 
a  pioneer  his  novels  are  remembered  and  students  of 
literature  are  set  to  read  them,  at  least  in  part.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  if  anybody  reads  them  to-day  unless 
he  has  to.  It  is  said  that  through  the  treachery  of 
one  of  Richardson's  journeymen  a  Dublin  printer  got 
out  a  pirated  edition  of  "Sir  Charles  Grandison"  and 
sold  it  in  Dublin  before  Richardson  got  it  bound  and 
published  in  London.  This  was  possible  because  the 
English  copyright  law  did  not  then  apply  to  Ireland. 

An  interesting  glimpse  of  the  trade  at  this  period 
may  be  obtained  through  the  pages  of  Wood  fall's  led- 
ger from  1734  to  1747,  which  has  been  published.  The 
student  of  these  matters  can  find  therein  very  inter- 
esting material  for  a  study  of  comparative  prices  and 
the  like.  One  entry  shows  that  he  charged  for  the 
printing  of  Pope's  translation  of  the  Iliad,  demy  paper, 
long  primer  and  brevier,  2000  copies,  6  volumes,  6814 
sheets,  £143  and  17  shillings,  equal  to  about  $1700  in 
American  money. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  and  important  printer  in 
the  eighteenth  century  in  England  was  John  Baskerville 
(1706-1775).  Baskerville  was  of  unknown  and  humble 
origin.  At  seventeen  we  find  him  a  servant  in  the  house 
of  a  clergyman  at  Birmingham.  He  was  a  good  penman, 
however,  and  his  employer  soon  set  him  to  teach 
penmanship  to  the  poor  boys  of  the  parish  and  after- 
wards got  him  a  position  as  a  teacher  of  penmanship 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  61 

and  bookkeeping  in  a  school.  Baskerville  was  not  only 
interested  in  penmanship  but  also  in  the  cutting  of 
letters  in  stone.  Unlike  Caslon,  this  interest  did  not 
lead  him  directly  to  take  up  type-founding  or  printing 
as  his  life  work.  In  1736  a  man  by  the  name  of  John 
Taylor  set  himself  up  in  business  at  Birmingham  as 
a  manufacturer  of  japanned  ware.  Baskerville  became 
interested  in  Taylor's  work  and  learned  Taylor's  trade 
secrets  by  following  him  about  and  whenever  he  went 
into  a  shop  and  made  a  purchase  going  in  himself  and 
buying  the  same  things  in  the  same  quantities.  In 
this  way  he  learned  the  composition  of  the  japanning 
mixture  and  shortly  set  up  a  business  for  himself. 
This  was  his  main  business  and  source  of  revenue 
throughout  his  life  and  was  very  prosperous.  Basker- 
ville did  not  imitate  Taylor  and  was  hardly  his  rival, 
but  won  success  in  making  other  and  better  things 
than  those  made  by  Taylor.  Curiously  enough,  al- 
though Baskerville  remained  in  this  business  for  many 
years  and  was  very  successful,  not  a  single  piece  of 
work  survives  which  is  known  to  be  his.  Meanwhile 
he  did  not  lose  his  early  interest  in  the  correct  forma- 
tion of  letters  and  he  became  actively  interested  in 
type-founding  about  1750.  By  this  time,  however, 
his  ideas  had  spread  beyond  the  mere  designing  and 
founding  of  type. 

He  conceived  the  idea  of  better  books  than  had 
yet  been  made  in  England.  He  considered  the  matter- 
in  its  broadest  possible  aspects.  He  realized  the  fact 
that  a  book  is  the  result  of  many  operations.  He 
believed  that  the  making  of  the  best  books,  such  as 
he  had  in  mind,  meant  the  best  possible  paper,  type, 
ink,  machines,  and  workmanship.     Beginning  with  the 


62  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

type,  he  employed  a  skilful  type-cutter  to  work  from 
his  designs  and  is  said  to  have  spent  £600  or  £800 
($3000  or  $4000)  before  getting  a  font  to  suit  him. 
He  never  attempted  to  cut  many  types.  His  roman 
differs  from.  Caslon's,  but  is  equal  to  it  in  legibility. 
It  is  beautifully  clear,  regular,  and  well  proportioned. 
Perhaps  a  certain  lack  of  character  and  a  too  mechan- 
ical perfection  would  be  the  general  criticism  which 
could  be  brought  against  it.  His  italic  was  the  best 
which  had  as  yet  been  seen  in  England. 

Baskerville  also  cut  a  font  of  Greek  type.  This 
experiment  has  been  regarded  as  unsuccessful  and  his 
Greek  type  has  been  somewhat  criticised.  It  was  un- 
successful, but  not  through  the  fault  of  the  type  itself. 
His  type  was  excellent,  but  it  differed  considerably 
from  that  to  which  the  scholars  were  then  accustomed 
and  the  learned  world  did  not  care  to  adopt  it.  Minor 
changes  in  the  formation  of  English  letters  are  not 
important,  providing  the  general  form  of  the  letter  is 
retained.  In  languages  using  a  different  character, 
however,  even  slight  modifications  are  liable  to  be 
confusing  and  scholarly  conservatism  naturally  shrinks 
from  changes  of  this  sort.  It  is  probable,  moreover, 
that  the  universities  and  the  few  persons  doing  print- 
ing in  Greek  did  not  encourage  the  new  character  as 
it  would  have  involved  a  considerable  expenditure  for 
new  type.  With  the  comparatively  small  use  for  Greek 
type  one  font  would  last  for  a  very  long  time. 

Excellent  as  Baskerville's  types  were,  they  were  not 
generally  adopted.  The  printers  stuck  to  the  work 
of  Caslon  and  Jackson,  partly  from  the  fact  shortly 
to  be  noted  that  Baskerville  did  not  get  on  very  well 
with  the  printers   and   publishers   and   partly  because 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION 


of  the  expense.  They  preferred  sticking  to  the  stand- 
ard fonts  and  buying  sorts  which  could  be  easily  pro- 
cured when  necessary  to  undergoing  the  expense  of 
buying  new  fonts  from  the  new  founder.  Although 
the  admirers  of  Baskerville  consider  his  type  better 
than  Caslon's,  it  was  not  enough  better  to  drive  it  out 
of  the  market.  Baskerville's  type,  moreover,  was 
much  criticised  on  its  own  account.  It  was  claimed 
that  owing  to  its  proportions  and  owing  to  its  sharp 
contrasts  it  was  hard  on  the  eyes.  This  criticism, 
however,  was  probably  very  largely  the  result  of  prej- 
udice and  dislike. 

Benjamin  Franklin  was  a  friend  of  Baskerville  and 
tells  an  amusing  story  about  this  kind  of  criticism.  He 
says  that  some  printers  were  at  his  lodging  in  London  and 
complained  vigorously  of  the  objectionable  character 
of  Baskerville's  type  and  of  the  eye  strain  and  head- 
ache which  it  caused  to  its  users.  Franklin  thereupon 
stepped  into  another  room  and  came  back  in  a  mo- 
ment with  a  sheet  of  Caslon's  specimens  from  which  he 
had  removed  the  heading.  He  handed  this  sheet  to 
the  critics  who  had  been  berating  Baskerville  and 
praising  Caslon  and  said  that  he  could  not  help 
thinking  that  they  were  influenced  somewhat  by  their 
prejudice  and  he  wished  that  they  would  examine  this 
sheet  and  see  if  they  actually  did  experience  the  un- 
pleasant results  of  which  they  had  complained.  Sup- 
posing the  sheet  to  be  Baskerville's  type,  they  studied 
it  with  some  care  and  unanimously  declared  that  they 
found  the  same  difficulties  and  experienced  the  same 
discomforts  which  they  had  always  met  with  in  read- 
ing Baskerville's  type.  Franklin  refrained  from  point- 
ing out'  the  -trap   into  which   he   had   betrayed    them, 


64  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

but  satisfied   himself  that  their  criticisms   really  were 
the  result  of  prejudice. 

Type-founding,  however,  was  only  a  part  of  Basker- 
ville's  scheme.  As  has  been  said,  he  had  conceived 
the  idea  of  the  perfect  book,  or  at  least  a  book  nearer 
perfection  than  England  had  yet  seen.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  things  about  Baskerville  that  he 
did  not  arrive  at  his  conceptions  by  a  process  of  experi- 
mentation and  production  of  mediocre  work.  He  con- 
ceived his  idea  and  elaborated  it  in  his  mind  first  and 
then  undertook  to  realize  it  in  a  product.  He  was 
the  artist  who  conceives  rather  than  the  craftsman 
who  slowly  elaborates.  The  designing  and  cutting  of 
new  fonts  of  type  was  only  one  step  in  that  direction. 
He  determined  that  he  would  attempt  to  produce  the 
whole  book  himself  and  he  therefore  set  up  a  printing 
office  of  his  own.  He  selected  the  paper  for  his  edi- 
tions with  the  greatest  care.  It  is  not  certain  that  he 
did  not  even  go  so  far  as  to  make  the  paper  for  some 
of  them,  but  whether  or  not  this  is  true  he  gave  it 
great  attention.  He  took  equal  care  with  his  ink, 
using  every  precaution  to  secure  the  production  of  a 
bright,  clear  ink  which  should  work  well  and  be  per- 
manent. He  also  had  a  special  press  built.  This  did 
not  involve  any  innovations  in  design,  but  was  built 
with  the  greatest  care  so  as  to  secure  the  best  possible 
impression.  In  order  to  give  smoothness  and  shine 
to  his  pages  and  prevent  the  type  from  pressing  into  the 
damp  paper  and  making  an  impression  on  the  reverse 
side  of  the  sheet  he  devised  what  is  known  as  the  hot 
press  method  of  finishing.  As  soon  as  the  damp  sheets 
came  from  the  press  they  were  placed  between  plates 
of  hot  metal  and  subjected  to  pressure.     This  gave  the 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  65 

paper  a  perfectly  smooth,  shiny  surface.  This  was 
another  of  the  points  of  criticism  of  Baskerville's  work. 
Those  who  were  familiar  with  the  coarse  paper  and 
rough  impressions  in  common  use  declared  that  the 
shine  of  the  smooth  paper  hurt  their  eyes.  Baskerville 
also  gave  great  attention  to  the  typographical  design 
of  his  books.  He  used  ample  margins  and  developed 
a  style  of  dignified  simplicity,  free  from  extraneous  orna- 
mentation and  extremely  reserved  in  the  use  of  all 
forms  of  ornament. 

As  a  result  of  this  care  Baskerville  produced  the  best 
books  which  had  yet  been  made  in  England.  They  were 
very  expensive.  No  cost  was  spared  in  their  production 
and  there  was  no  catering  to  the  popular  taste  which 
would  enable  him  to  reduce  unit  costs  by  publishing  large 
editions.  Baskerville  frankly  printed  for  the  few.  He 
believed  that  there  were  lovers  of  good  books  and  good 
literature  who  were  ready  to  pay  what  might  be  nec- 
essary to  obtain  their  favorite  authors  in  a  fitting  dress. 
In  this  he  was  somewhat  disappointed.  The  number 
of  such  persons  was  less  numerous  than  he  had  sup- 
posed and  it  is  probable  that  on  the  whole  Baskerville 
lost  rather  than  made  money  by  his  printing  and  type- 
founding  enterprises.  He  printed  about  sixty-seven  books, 
all  of  which  were  reprints  of  the  classics  or  standard 
authors.  Not  a  single  new  book  came  from  his  press, 
although  these  were  the  flourishing  days  of  Samuel 
Johnson,  Goldsmith,  Pope,  Gray,  Burke,  Chesterfield, 
Young,  Akenside,  and  other  famous  writers.  The 
booksellers  would  not  support  him.  He  was  not  will- 
ing to  cheapen  his  work  or  to  lower  his  prices  to  meet 
their  wishes,  nor  would  he  consent  to  being,  like  so 
many  printers,  a  mere  servant  of  the   publisher.     He 


66  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

felt  that  he  had  his  artistic  message  to  give  to  the  world 
and  he  insisted  upon  giving  it  in  his  own  way,  making 
himself  his  own  publisher  as  well  as  printer.  Very 
likely  his  editions  would  have  made  a  larger  sale  if  he 
had  had  the  support  of  the  booksellers  in  putting  them 
on  the  market,  but  this  was  denied  him. 

Disheartened  and  disgusted  by  the  lack  of  appre- 
ciation and  support,  Baskerville  tried  to  sell  out  his 
type-foundry,  but  was  unsuccessful.  He  negotiated 
with  several  of  the  leading  printers  of  the  continent 
and  with  Franklin,  but  was  not  able  to  effect  a  sale. 
Twenty  years  after  his  death,  however,  his  type  was 
used  in  the  famous  Boydell  Shakspeare.  His  type 
obtained  partial  recognition.  His  work  has  been  called 
too  artistic  for  his  time.  It  is  said  that  Baskerville  was 
an  artist,  but  the  England  of  the  eighteenth  century 
was  not  artistic.  Perhaps  it  might  better  be  said  that 
Baskerville's  standard  of  perfection  was  higher  than 
his  time  could  appreciate  and  that  he  failed  because 
there  was  not  yet  a  sufficiently  large  public  ready  to 
spend  considerable  money  for  de  luxe  book  making. 
Baskerville  unquestionably  possessed  great  taste  and 
a  very  high  degree  of  mechanical  skill.  One  does  not 
find  in  his  work,  however,  the  artist's  spirit  which 
manifests  itself  in  the  work  of  the  old  masters  or  their 
late  nineteenth  century  followers.  Baskerville's  work, 
nevertheless,  was  not  in  vain.  No  man  can  ever  do 
anything  better  than  it  has  yet  been  done  without  con- 
tributing to  the  progress  of  true  art,  even  though  his 
productions  are  appreciated  by  but  few  people.  Unques- 
tionably Baskerville's  work  influenced  the  Whitting- 
hams,  who  are  the  great  figures  in  the  world  of  printing 
in  the  early  nineteenth  century. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  TRANSITION  67 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  before  passing  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  work  of  the  Whittinghams,  that  sev- 
eral, of  the  great  English  printing  houses  whose  names 
are  familiar  to  all  readers  of  books  run  back  far  into  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  Rivington  house  was  estab- 
lished in  171 1,  Eyre  and  Spottiswoode  not  much  later, 
Longmans  in  1724,  John  Murray  in  1768,  William 
Blackwood  &  Son  in  1804,  A.  C.  Black  in  18 15,  to  men- 
tion only  a  few  of  the  more  familiar.  In  many  cases 
these  firm  names  have  been  several  times  changed, 
but  the  firms  have  maintained  continuous  existence. 


CHAPTER  V 
The  Whittinghams  and  the  Modern  Book 

CHARLES  WHITTINGHAM,  the  elder,  founder 
of  the  business  which  is  now  known  as  the  Chis- 
wick  Press,  was  born  in  1767.  He  began  work  as 
a  printer  in  1789  on  a  very  small  scale.  His  first 
work  was  small  job  work  such  as  cards,  letterheads, 
billheads,  and  the  like.  It  was  not  until  1792  that  he 
did  any  book  work  at  all.  His  first  job  was  part  of  an 
edition  of  Young's  "Night  Thoughts."  It  was  not 
uncommon  at  this  time  for  publishers  to  parcel  out  a 
book  among  a  number  of  small  printers,  giving  to  each 
a  certain  number  of  signatures.  Like  his  great  prede- 
cessor Day,  Whittingham  started  out  doing  printing  as 
badly  as  anybody  else.  The  work  which  he  did  on  his 
first  book  order  shows  all  the  vices  of  the  time. 

Fortunately  for  the  art,  Whittingham  was  not  con- 
tent to  remain  a  poor  printer,  although  he  must  have 
been  perfectly  aware  that  he  was  such.  He  early  made 
the  acquaintance  of  William  Caslon,  from  whom  he 
bought  type  and  from  whom  he  not  improbably  re- 
ceived typographical  suggestions.  In  1798  he  pub- 
lished a  book  of  a  sort  much  in  vogue  at  that  period, 
called  "Pity's  Gift."  In  choice  of  type,  design  of 
title  page,  and  other  regards  this  book  shows  a  great 
improvement  over  the  work  of  previous  years.  It 
was  illustrated  and  was  the  beginning  of  the  long  series 
of  illustrated  books  for  which  the  house  afterwards 
became  famous.  The  illustrations,  however,  were  poor 
in  themselves  and  poorly  printed.     Here  again  Whit- 

68 


THE  MODERN  BOOK  69 


tingham  began  on  a  level  with  his  contemporaries, 
but  by  study  and  labor  raised  himself  far  above  that 
level. 

In  a  few  years  Whittingham  was  recognized  as  the 
best  printer  in  England  and  had  built  up  a  good  and 
profitable  business.  He  won  this  success  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  he,  even  more  than  Baskerville,  failed 
to  get  on  with  the  publishers.  The  publishers  wanted 
cheap  printing  and  large  profits.  Whittingham  refused 
to  lower  his  standards  to  meet  their  desires  and  in- 
sisted on  printing  to  suit  himself  and,  as  he  believed, 
the  public.  Less  ambitious  than  Baskerville,  but 
equally  conscientious,  Whittingham  published  small 
books,  well  printed,  which  could  be  sold  at  a  reason- 
able price,  although  not  at  the  price  of  trash.  He  was 
right  in  his  estimate  of  the  public  demand  and,  secure 
in  public  support,  was  able  to  defy  the  publishers. 
W7hen  they  refused  to  give  him  their  work  he  told  them 
to  keep  it,  and  entirely  disregarded  their  hostility.  He 
carried  the  war  into  the  enemies'  country  by  refusing 
to  be  bound  by  certain  trade  customs.  These  customs 
were  survivals  of  the  old  privileges  and  monopolies 
which  kept  certain  books  in  certain  hands.  There  was 
no  foundation  for  these  customs  except  their  antiquity, 
and  Whittingham  proposed  to  publish  certain  books 
which  from  time  immemorial  had  been  held  to  be  the 
property  of  others.  Of  course,  the  publishers  called  him 
a  pirate,  but  he  never  infringed  upon  a  real  copyright 
and  his  conduct  in  the  matter  is  entirely  free  from 
moral  reproach. 

Whittingham  was  an  enterprising  business  man  as 
well  as  desirous  of  artistic  improvement.  He  bought 
the  first  Stanhope  press  which  was  sold  to  a  printing 


70  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

house,  in  1800,  and  his  house  was  among  the  first  to 
adopt  improved  machinery  and  methods  of  all  sorts. 
There  is,  however,  one  notable  exception.  Whitting- 
ham  and  his  nephew  and  successor  believed  that  it 
was  not  possible  to  do  the  best  work  on  anything  but 
a  hand  press,  and  no  power  presses  were  used  in  the 
Chiswick  Press  until  i860. 

About  the  opening  of  the  century  a  man  by  the 
name  of  Potts  invented  a  process  for  making  paper 
stock  from  old  rope  by  removing  the  tar  and  dirt. 
Whittingham  got  possession  of  this  process  and  opened 
a  paper-stock  factory.  He  did  not,  however,  open  a 
paper  mill,  but  sold  the  stock  to  Fourdrinier,  the  great 
French  paper  maker.  The  paper-stock  mill  was  at 
Chiswick,  and  Whittingham  opened  in  181 1  a  second 
printing  office  in  the  neighborhood,  which  he  called 
the  Chiswick  Press.  For  a  time  he  carried  on  the  two 
printing  offices,  the  paper-stock  mill,  a  book-shop,  several 
publishing  ventures,  and  a  business  of  some  sort,  it  is 
not  now  known  what,  in  Jersey.  It  was  not  many 
years,  however,  before  he  saw  the  danger  of  this  exten- 
sion and  gradually  disposed  of  the  outside  things,  con- 
centrating his  interest  in  the  Chiswick  Press,  which 
he  preferred  to  continue  rather  than  the  London  office. 

During  this  period  his  work  steadily  continued  to 
improve.  He  invented  a  secret  process  for  giving  per- 
manent brilliancy  to  his  ink.  He  gave  the  greatest 
attention  to  the  design  and  lay-out  of  his  books,  pro- 
portion in  the  matter  of  margins  and  the  like,  and  to 
presswork.  This  last  was  doubly  important  because 
of  his  determination  to  improve  the  process  of  illus- 
tration. Of  course,  the  modern  processes  were  not 
then  in  use.     Black  and  white  was  done  either  from 


THE  MODERN  BOOK  71 


wood  blocks  or  steel  and  copper  plates,  and  color  work 
was  done  by  the  use  of  solid  color  on  blocks.  In  order 
to  secure  better  results  in  black  and  white,  Whitting- 
ham  invented  the  over-lay  process.  Some  of  his  work 
in  color  was  the  best  ever  produced  by  the  methods 
which  were  then  known.  An  indication  of  the  resources 
of  the  establishment  may  be  gathered  from  the  story 
of  the  production  of  his  British  Poets,  sets  of  which 
may  still  be  occasionally  bought  in  old  book-shops. 
The  design  for  the  series  was  planned  in  18 19. '  It  was 
shortly  announced  that  they  were  to  be  published  on 
a  given  day  in  1822.  When  the  day  came  the  whole 
set  was  published  as  announced.  It  consisted  of  one 
hundred  royal  l8mo  volumes,  illustrated.  Five  hundred 
sets  were  printed,  making  a  total  of  50,000  volumes. 

Shortly  after  this  the  younger  Charles  Whittingham, 
nephew  of  the  elder,  appears  upon  the  scene.  He  was 
his  uncle's  apprentice  and  became  his  partner  in  1824. 
The  partnership  lasted  for  four  years  and  was  appar- 
ently not  a  very  harmonious  arrangement.  The  elder 
Whittingham,  like  many  strong  and  successful  men, 
was  masterful  and  was  not  disposed  to  share  either 
power  or  responsibility.  The  young  man,  although 
having  no  occasion  to  complain  of  any  unfairness,  felt 
that  although  nominally  a  partner  he  was  really  merely 
an  employee.  In  1828  he  left  the  Chiswick  Press  and 
set  up  for  himself  in  London.  He  continued  in  business 
there  for  ten  years  and  then  his  uncle,  who  was  now 
old  and  in  failing  health,  called  him  back  to  take  ch>. 
of  the  Chiswick  Press.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  their 
partnership  had  not  been  satisfactory,  the  old  man 
doubtless  realized  that  his  nephew  was  the  only  man 
in  England  who  was  competent  to  continue  the  business 


72  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

which  he  had  built  up  with  so  much  toil  and  in  which 
he  took  so  much  pride.  From  this  time  until  the  date 
of  the  death  of  the  elder  man  the  younger  Whitting- 
ham  was  the  moving  spirit  in  the  establishment.  After 
the  death  of  the  elder  Whittingham  the  plant  was 
moved  back  to  London  without  change  of  name. 

Shortly  after  the  younger  Whittingham  took  over 
the  management  he  became  acquainted  with  William 
Pickering  and  formed  an  association  with  him  which 
had  momentous  effects  on  English  printing  and  pub- 
lishing. Pickering  had  started  an  old-book  business 
in  182 1  and  had  made  money.  Although  not  a  prac- 
tical printer  he  was  interested  in  books  and  he  had 
very  intelligent  ideas  as  to  what  qualities  made  books 
good,  considered  as  pieces  of  work.  Pickering  desired 
to  publish  fine  editions  of  old  writers  and  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  Whittingham  to  produce  them.  For 
twenty-five  years  these  two  men  worked  together  doing 
the  best  book-making  which  England  had  yet  seen.  Com- 
paratively little  of  it  was  new  work.  It  was  mainly 
the  printing  of  fine  editions  of  so-called  standard  litera- 
ture. In  1844,  dissatisfied  with  the  types  in  current 
use,  they  induced  Henry  Caslon,  who  was  then  the 
head  of  the  Caslon  foundry,  to  revive  the  old  W7illiam 
Caslon  type,  known  technically  as  old-face  reman,  and 
this  revival  was  the  beginning  of  the  permanent  restora- 
tion cf  the  Caslon  types  to  favor. 

Pickering  and  Whittingham  together  may  be  said 
to  be  the  fathers  of  the  modern  book.  Together  they 
worked  out  many  improvements.  The  excellent  work 
in  illustration  which  had  been  developed  by  the  elder 
Whittingham  was  continued  and  improved.  In  1840 
they  were  doing  color  printing  from  wood  blocks  which 


THE  MODERN  BOOK  73 


was  the  best  ever  done  by  that  process  in   England, 
and    later   they   began    to   produce   ornamental    books 
with  initials,  borders,  head  pieces,  and  the  like,  printed 
from  wood  blocks,  but  superior  to  anything  which  had 
been  seen  since  the    days  of  illuminated   manuscripts. 
Pickering  and  Whittingham  were  in  constant  consul- 
tation.    They   spent   their   Sundays    and    much   other 
time  together.    The  completeness  of  their  cooperation  is 
shown  by  Whittingham's  answer  to  the  question  which  of 
the  two  had  the  greater  influence  on  the  other.  He  replied, 
"My  dear  sir,  when  you  tell  me  which  half  of  a  pair  of 
scissors  is  the  more  useful,  I  will  answer  your  question/' 
Pickering  died  in   1854,  bankrupt  through  indorsing 
notes  for  a  friend.    The  death  of  Pickering  was  a  great 
blow  to  Whittingham,  but  the  bankruptcy  did  not  in 
any  way   involve   the   Chiswick  Press.      Whittingham 
never  took  the  same  interest  in  the  business  afterward, 
although  the  house  had  become  sufficiently  strong  to 
continue    and    maintain    its    standards.      Whittingham 
was   always   actuated   by   the   true   craftsman's   spirit. 
He   was   successful   in   his   business,  but   he  was   more 
anxious  for  artistic  than  for  financial  success.     There 
is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  if  he  had  been  willing 
to  do  so  he  might  have  amassed  a  large  fortune.    Upon 
one  occasion   he  was  called   in   as  an  expert  to  figure 
the  price  which  the  government  should  offer  for  a  very 
large  contract.      Instead   of  calling   for  bids   the  gov- 
ernment had  a  price  figured  which  it  proposed  to  offer 
for    the    work.      Whittingham    figured    a    price    which 
would  be    just  to   the  government    and    at   the   same 
time  offer  a  good  margin  of  profit  to  the  contractor. 
After   he    had    completed    his    labors,    he    was   offered 
the  contract  himself,  but  refused,  stating  as  he  did  so 


74  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

that  he  would  rather  print  fine  books  than  make  money. 

The  history  of  English  printing  shows  one  more 
epoch-making  figure.  It  is  that  of  William  Morris, 
poet,  socialist,  idealist,  and  craftsman.  Morris  is  in 
many  ways  one  of  the  most  picturesque  figures  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Interested  in  many  kinds  of  crafts- 
manship, he  was  particularly  interested  in  printing  and 
in  1 891  he  set  up  the  Kelmscott  Press  in  order  to  ex- 
press his  idea  of  what  a  book  should  be.  Morris  was 
above  all  things  a  man  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Like  the 
even  more  famous  Ruskin,  his  spirit  revolted  from 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Whatever  he  did,  thought,  or  said  is  influenced  by  this 
underlying  spirit  of  medievalism.  In  his  books  and  his 
types  we  find  exhibited  the  spirit  and  forms  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  but  the  vital  thing  is  the  spirit  and  not 
the  form.  Although  deeply  influenced  by  fifteenth 
century  forms,  Morris's  work  is  not  mere  imitation.  It 
is  rather  a  reproduction  of  the  old-time  spirit.  Morris 
said  that  in  printing  it  was  important  to  consider  "the 
paper,  the  form  of  the  type,  the  relative  spacing  of  the 
letters,  words,  and  lines,  and  lastly  the  position  of  the 
printed  matter  on  the  page."  The  harmony  and  com- 
j  >teness  of  the  whole,  a  harmony  extending  beyond 
mechanism  to  the  harmony  of  literary  spirit  and  typo- 
graphic form,  was  his  fundamental  idea.  In  working  this 
out  he  adopted  as  a  unit  not  the  single  page  of  type,  as 
had  been  commonly  the  case,  but  the  double  page,  on 
the  ground  that  when  the  book  is  opened  we  have  before 
our  eyes  not  one  page  but  two,  and  therefore  the  two 
together  form  a  unit  of  book  composition. 

Morris  designed  three  types,  named  from  the  books 
in  which  they  were  first  employed.     The  first  was  the 


THE  MODERN  BOOK  75 


Golden,  from  the  Golden  Legend,  a  heav)  black  roman 
letter  with  distinct  gothic  influence.  The  second  was 
the  Troy,  from  an  edition  of  Caxton's  Troy  book,  a 
modification  of  a  Koburger  gothic  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  third  was  the  Chaucer,  so  called  from  an 
edition  of  some  of  Chaucer's  work,  which  was  the  Troy 
reduced  in  size  and  slightly  modified  in  face.  The  initial 
letters  were  designed  by  Morris  in  imitation  of  a 
used  by  Sweynheim  and  Pannartz. 

Unfortunately  Morris  lived  only  five  years  after  he 
began  to  print  and  his  press  did  not  survive  him.  Dur- 
ing that  period  he  published  fifty-three  books  in  sixty- 
five  volumes,  none  of  them  in  large  editions.  The 
influence  of  Morris,  however,  was  very  great.  Although 
he  was  not  extensively  copied  directly,  he  led  in  a  marked 
revival  of  the  spirit  of  the  old  craftsman  and  in  a 
renewal  of  the  old  conception  of  the  unity  and  harmony 
of  the  book  as  a  whole.  The  Kelmscott  Press  was  hardly 
closed  when  Charles  Ricketts  opened  the  Yale  Press, 
which  operated  from  1896  to  1904.  Ricketts  had  much 
of  the  spirit  and  many  of  the  methods  of  Morris,  but 
unlike  Morris,  who  approached  his  type  problem  from 
the  side  of  manuscript,  Ricketts  conceived  his  forms 
as  cast  in  metal.  Another  continuer  of  Morris's  wor] 
was  the  Dove  Press,  which  was  started  in  1900. 

Morris's  influence  extended  beyond  the  Atlantic  and 
shows  itself  in  some  of  the  best  American  printing, 
particularly  that  of  Mr.  Daniel  Berkeley  Updike  of  the 
Merrymount  Press  of  Boston  and  Mr.  Bruce  Rogers  of 
the  Riverside  Press  of  Cambridge. 

I  The  central  feature  in  the  history  of  printing  of  the 
last  century  has   been   the  development  of    periodical 


76  PRINTING  IN  ENGLAND 

and  commercial  printing.  Previous  to  the  last  hun- 
dred years  the  particular  thing  was  the  book,  but  book 
printing  is  now  only  a  small  part  of  the  industry.  A 
study  of  periodical  and  commercial  printing  would  be 
extremely  interesting,  but  it  lies  in  the  domain  of  typog- 
raphy rather  than  in  that  of  the  history  of  printing. 
With  the  brief  consideration  which  we  have  made  of 
the  so-called  revival  of  printing  under  Morris  and  his 
successors  we  may  properly  take  leave  of  this  branch 
of  our  subject. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

William  Caxton.  By  Charles  Knight.  (Popular  and  in  a  few  respects 
inaccurate,  but  excellent  for  its  sketch  of  the  life  and  conditions 
of  Caxton's  time.) 

Life  and  Typography  of  William  Caxton.  By  William  Blades.  (The 
standard  authority,  but  suited  only  for  somewhat  advanced 
students.) 

A  Short  History  of  English  Printing.  By  Henry  R.  Plomer.  (A  fairly 
good  general  view  of  the  subject.) 

The  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature.  Vol.  II,  Chap. 
xiii;  Vol.  IV,  Chap,  xviii;  Vol.  VII,  Chap,  xv;  Vol.  XI,  Chap, 
xiv.  (This  work  is  made  up  of  monographs  written  by  distin- 
guished specialists.  The  chapters  indicated  contain  a  very  good 
general  view  of  the  development  of  British  printing  and  pub- 
lishing and  of  the  beginnings  of  journalism  in  England.) 

See  files  of  the  Inland  Printer  (Chicago)  for  excellent  articles  by  Mr. 
Henry  L.  Bullen.  These  articles  are  notable  for  their  valuable 
illustrations. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  77 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    STUDENTS    AND     INSTRUCTORS 

The  following  questions,  based  on  the  contents  of  this  pamphlet, 
are  intended  to  serve  (i)  as  a  guide  to  the  study  of  the  text,  (z >  as 
an  aid  to  the  student  in  putting  the  information  contained  into 
definite  statements  without  actually  memorizing  the  text,  (3)  as  a 
means  of  securing  from  the  student  a  reproduction  of  the  informa- 
tion in  his  own  words. 

A  careful  following  of  the  questions  by  the  reader  will  insure  full 
acquaintance  with  every  part  of  the  text,  avoiding  the  accidental 
omission  of  what  might  be  of  value.  These  primers  are  so  condensed 
that  nothing  should  be  omitted. 

In  teaching  from  these  books  it  is  very  important  that  these 
questions  and  such  others  as  may  occur  to  the  teacher  should  be 
made  the  basis  of  frequent  written  work,  and  of  final  examinations. 

The  importance  of  written  work  cannot  be  overstated.  It  not 
only  assures  knowledge  of  material  but  the  power  to  express  that 
knowlege  correctly  and  in  good  form. 

If  this  written  work  can  be  submitted  to  the  teacher  in  printed 
form  it  will  be  doubly  useful. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  general  conditions  made  England  slow  to  take 

up  printing? 

2.  What  special  conditions  existed  in  England  about 

the  time  of  the  invention  of  printing? 

3.  What  is  the  truth  about  the  story  that  the  first 

English  printed  book  was  dated  1468? 

4.  Tell  the  story  of  Caxton's  life  up  to  his  return  to 

England. 

5.  Tell  the  story  of  the  rest  of  his  life. 

6.  How  many  books  did  he  print,  and  of  what  sort? 

7.  What  remarkable  omissions  are  there  in  his  work, 

and  why? 

8.  What  was  his  special  field? 

9.  What  sort  of  man  was  Caxton? 

10.  What  can  you  say  about  Caxton's  typography? 


78  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

11.  What  other  printers  appeared  in  England  during 

Caxton's  life? 

12.  WThat  was  the  great  difference  between  Caxton  and 

his  successors? 

13.  Who  was  Caxton's  successor  in  business,  and  what 

do  you  know  about  him? 

14.  Who  was  Pynson,  and  what  did  he  do? 

15.  WThat  do  you    know   about   Copeland;   Berthelet; 

Grafton  and  Whitchurch? 

16.  Describe  the  condition  of  English  printing  up  to 

1550,  and  give  the  reason. 

17.  What  change  took  place  after  1525? 

18.  What  books  were  imported,  and  why? 

19.  What  was  the  situation  in  England  all  through  the 

Middle  Ages  with  regard  to  labor  troubles? 

20.  WThat  social  change  took  place  in  the  nineteenth 

century,  and  what  was  the  result? 

21.  How  did  the  English  deal  with  the  problem  of  the 

regulation  of  printing? 

22.  What  can  you  say  about  English  craft  guilds? 

23.  What  were  the  reasons  for  the  organization  of  the 

Company  of  Stationers? 

24.  What  was  the  form  of  organization  of  the  Company  ? 

25.  W7hat  was  the  Star  Chamber? 

26.  What    were    the    powers    and    the    duties    of  •  the 

Company? 

27.  What  followed  the  organization  of  the  Company? 

28.  Give  the  substance  of  the  edict  of  1586. 

29.  What  did  the  Company  do  in  the  execution  of  this 

edict? 

30.  What  difficulties,  other  than  those  caused   by  the 

edicts,  troubled  the  printers? 

31.  Tell  the  story  of  John  Wolfe. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  79 


32.  What  was  the  result  of  the  reduction  in  tin- number 
of  offices,  and  what  was  done  about  it? 

33.  Describe   English   printing  apprenticeship   at   this 
period. 

34.  What  were  the  relations  between  author,  printer, 
and  bookseller? 

35.  Tell  the  story  of  John  Day. 

36.  Mention  other  printers  of  this  time,  and  give  some 
distinguishing  fact  about  each. 

37.  What  tendency  appears  in  English  printing  after 
Day,  and  why? 

38.  How    did    printing    fare    under    James     I;    under 
Charles  I  ? 

39.  Give  the  substance  of  the  edict  of  1637. 

40.  What  legislation  was  enacted  to  protect    English 
printing? 

41.  WThat  happened  when  Parliament  got  the    upper 
hand, and  why? 

42.  How  did  printing  fare  under  Cromwell? 

43.  Tell  the  story  of  the  attempt   to  incorporate    the 
Company  of  Printers. 

44.  Sketch  the  course  of  government  regulation  from 
1662  to  1694. 

45.  Tell  about  Roycroft  and  his  work. 

46.  Tell  about  the  four  type-founders  of  this  time. 

47.  Describe  the  rise  to  prominence  of  the  Oxford  Press. 

48.  What    three    special    changes    took    place    in    the 
eighteenth  century? 

49.  Tell  the  story  of  the  invention  of  stereotyping. 

50.  Tell  how  the  publishers  became  the  principal  power 
in  the  book  business. 

51.  Give  the  substance  of  the  coypright  act  of  1709. 

52.  What  was  the  effect  of  this  act  on  the  author  and 
on  the  manufacture  of  books? 

53.  Tell  the  story  of  William  Caslon. 


80  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

54.  Tell  the  story  of  Samuel  Richardson. 

55.  Tell  the  story  of  the  life  of  Baskerville. 

56.  Tell  about  Baskerville  as  a  type-founder. 

57.  Tell   about   Baskerville's   press;   his   methods;   the 

reason  for  his  lack  of  success. 

58.  Was  Baskerville's  work  a  failure,  and  why? 

59.  Tell  the  story  of  Charles  Whittingham,  the  elder. 

60.  Tell  the  story  of  Charles  Whittingham,  the  younger. 

61.  Tell  the  story  of  Pickering  and  his  alliance  with 

Whittingham. 

62.  Tell  the  story  of  Morris  and  the  Kelmscott  Press. 

63.  Describe  Morris's  ideas  and  tell  about  his  work. 

64.  What  was  the  effect  of  Morris's  work? 

65.  Name  a  few  of  the  printers  most  influenced  by  him. 


TYPOGRAPHIC  TECHNICAL  SERIES 
FOR  APPRENTICES 

r"pHE  following  list  of  publications,  comprising  the  Typographic 
A  Technical  Series  for  Apprentices,  has  been  prepared 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Committee  on  Education  of  the 
United  Typothetae  of  America  for  use  in  trade  classes,  in  course  of 
printing  instruction,  and  by  individuals. 

Each  publication  has  been  compiled  by  a  competent  author  or 
group  of  authors,  and  carefully  edited,  the  purpose  being  to  pro- 
vide the  printers  of  the  United  States — employers,  journeymen, 
and  apprentices — with  a  comprehensive  series  of  handy  and 
inexpensive  compendiums  of  reliable,  up-to-date  information  upon 
the  various  branches  and  specialties  of  the  printing  craft,  all 
arranged  in  orderly  fashion  for  progressive  study. 

The  publications  of  the  series  are  of  uniform  size,  5x8  inches. 
Their  general  make-up,  in  typography,  illustrations,  etc.,  has 
been,  as  far  as  practicable,  kept  in  harmony  throughout.  A  brief 
synopsis  of  the  particular  contents  and  other  chief  features  of  each 
volume  will  be  found  under  each  title  in  the  following  list. 

Each  topic  is  treated  in  a  concise  manner,  the  aim  being  to 
embody  in  each  publication  as  completely  as  possible  all  the 
rudimentary  information  and  essential  facts  necessary  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  subject.  Care  has  been  taken  to  make  all  state- 
ments accurate  and  clear,  with  the  purpose  of  bringing  essential 
information  within  the  understanding  of  beginners  in  the  different 
fields  of  study.  Wherever  practicable,  simple  and  well-defined 
drawings  and  illustrations  have  been  used  to  assist  in  giving 
additional  clearness  to  the  text. 

In  order  that  the  pamphlets  may  be  of  the  greatest  possible 
help  for  use  in  trade-school  classes  and  for  self-instruction,  each 
title  is  accompanied  by  a  list  of  Review  Questions  covering 
essential  items  of  the  subject  matter.  A  short  Glossary  of  tech- 
nical terms  belonging  to  the  subject  or  department  treated  is  also 
added  to  many  of  the  books. 

These  are  the  Official  Text-books  of  the  United  Typothetae  of 
America. 

Address  all  orders  and  inquiries  to  Committee  on  Education, 
United  Typothetae  of  America,  Chicago,  Illinois,  U.  8.  A. 


TYPOGRAPHIC  TECHNICAL  SERIES  for  APPRENTICES 


PART  I — Types,  Tools,  Machines,  and  Materials 

1.  Type:  a  Primer  of  Information.        .       .    By  A.  A.  Stewart 

Relating  to  the  mechanical  features  of  printing  types;  their  sizes,  font 
schemes,  etc.,  with  a  brief  description  of  their  manufacture.  44  pp.; 
illustrated;  74  review  questions;  glossary. 

2.  Compositors'  Tools  and  Materials    .       .    By  A.  A.  Stewart 

A  primer  of  information  about  composing  sticks,  galleys,  leads,  brass 
rules,  cutting  and  mitering  machines,  etc.  47  pp.;  illustrated;  50  review 
questions;  glossary. 

3.  Type  Cases,  Composing  Room  Furniture     By  A.  A.  Stewart 

A  primer  of  information  about  type  cases,  work  stands,  cabinets,  case 
racks,  galley  racks,  standing  galleys,  etc.  43  pp.;  illustrated;  33  review 
questions;  glossary. 

4.  Imposing  Tables  and  Lock-up  Appliances    By  A.  A.  Stewart 

Describing  the  tools  and  materials  used  in  locking  up  forms  for  the  press, 
including  some  modern  utilities  for  special  purposes.  59  pp.;  illustrated; 
70  review  questions;  glossary. 

5.  Proof  Presses By  A.  A.  Stewart 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  customary  methods  and  machines  for 
taking  printers'  proofs.    40  pp. ;  illustrated;  41  review  questions;  glossary. 

6.  Platen  Printing  Presses      ....     By  Daniel  Baker 

A  primer  of  information  regarding  the  history  and  mechanical  construc- 
tion of  platen  printing  presses,  from  the  original  hand  press  to  the  modern 
job  press,  to  which  is  added  a  chapter  on  automatic  presses  of  small  size. 
51  pp.;  illustrated;  49  review  questions;  glossary. 

7.  Cylinder  Printing  Presses    .       .       .By  Herbert  L.  Baker 

Being  a  study  of  the  mechanism  and  operation  of  the  principal  types  of 
cylinder  printing  machines.  64  pp.;  illustrated;  47  review  questions; 
glossary. 

8.  Mechanical  Feeders  and  Folders        By  William  E.  Spurrier 

The  history  and  operation  of  modern  feeding  and  folding  machines;  with 
hints  on  their  care  and  adjustments.  Illustrated;  review  questions; 
glossary. 

9.  Power  for  Machinery  in  Printing  Houses     By  Carl  F.  Scott 

A  treatise  on  the  methods  of  applying  power  to  printing  presses  and  allied 
machinery  with  particular  reference  to  electric  drive.    53  pp. ;  illustrated; 

69  review  questions;  glossary. 

10.  Paper  Cutting  Machines     ....   By  Niel  Gray,  Jr. 

A  primer  of  information  about  paper  and  card  trimmers,  hand-lever 
cutters,  power  cutters,  and  other  automatic  machines  for  cutting  paper, 

70  pp.;  illustrated;  115  review  questions;  glossary. 

11.  Printers'  Rollers  .       .       .       .       .       .   By  A.  A.  Stewart 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  composition,  manufacture,  and  care  of 
inking  rollers.    46  pp.;  illustrated;  61  review  questions;  glossary. 

12.  Printing  Inks By  Philip  Ruxton 

Their  composition,  properties  and  manufacture  (reprinted  by  permission 
from  Circular  No.  53,  United  States  Bureau  of  Standards) ;  together  with 
some  helpful  suggestions  about  the  everyday  use  of  printing  inks  by 
Philip  Ruxton.     80  pp.;  100  review  questions;  glossary. 

ii 


TYPOGRAPHIC  TECHNICAL  SERIES  for  APPRENTICES 


PART  I  (continued) — Paper  and  Printing  Plates 

13.  How  Paper  is  Made     .        .    By  William  Bond  Wheelwright 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  materials  and  processes  <>f  manufactur- 
ing paper  for  printing  and  writing.  68  pp.;  illustrated;  62  review  ques- 
tions; glossary. 

14.  Relief  Engravings         .        .        .        .By  Joseph  P.  Donovan 

Brief  history  and  non-technical  description  of  modern  method!  of  engrav- 
ing; woodcut,  zinc  plate,  halftone;  kind  of  copy  for  reproduction;  things 
to  remember  when  ordering  engravings.  Illustrated;  review  questions; 
glossary. 

15.  Electrotyping  and  Stero typing 

By  Harris  B.  Hatch  and  A.  A.  Stewart 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  processes  of  electrotyping  and  stereo- 
typing.   94  pp.;  illustrated;  129  review  questions;  glossari* ■-. 

PART  II — Hand  and  Machine  Composition 

16.  Typesetting    .       .       ...       .       .    By  A.  A.  Stewart 

A  handbook  for  beginners,  giving  information  about  justifying,  spacing, 
correcting,  and  other  matters  relating  to  typesetting.  Illustrated; 
review  questions;  glossary. 

17.  Printers'  Proofs By  A.  A.  Stewart 

The  methods  by  which  they  are  made,  marked,  and  corrected,  with 
observations  on  proofreading.    Illustrated;  review  questions;  glossary. 

18.  First  Steps  in  Job  Composition .        .        By  Camille  DeV6ze 

Suggestions  for  the  apprentice  compositor  in  setting  his  first  jobs, 
especially  about  the  important  little  things  which  go  to  make  good 
display  in  typography.    63  pp.;  examples;  55  review  questions;  glossary. 

19.  General  Job  Composition    . 

How  the  job  compositor  handles  business  stationery,  programs  and 
miscellaneous  work.     Illustrated;  review  questions;  glossary. 

20.  Book  Composition        .       .       .       .         By  J.  W.  Bothwell 

Chapters  from  DeVinne's  "Modern  Methods  of  Book  Composition," 
revised  and  arranged  for  this  series  of  text-books  by  J.  W.  Bothwell  of 
The  DeVinne  Press,  New  York.  Part  I:  Composition  of  pages.  Part  II : 
Imposition  of  pages.    229  pp. ;  illustrated;  525  review  questions;  glossary. 

21.  Tabular  Composition By  Robert  Seaver 

A  study  of  the  elementary  forms  of  table  composition,  with  examples  of 
more  difficult  composition.    30  pp.;  examples;  45  review  questions. 

22.  Applied  Arithmetic By  E.  E.  Sheldon 

Elementary  arithmetic  applied  to  problems  of  the  printing  I  rade,  calcula- 
tion of  materials,  paper  weights  and  sizes,  with  standard  I  ablea  and  rules 
for  computation,  each  subject  amplified  with  examples  and  exercises. 
159  pp. 

23.  Typecasting  and  Composing  Machines  A.  W.  Finlay,  Editor 

Section  I — The  Linotype By  L.  A    Bernstein 

Section  II — The  Monotype Bj  Joseph  Bayi 

Section  III — The  Intertype By  Henry  W.  Cosseni 

Section  IV — Other  Typecasting  and  Typesetting  .Machines 

By  Frank  II  Smith 
A  brief  history  of  typesetting  machines,  with  descriptions  of  their 
mechanical  principles  and  operation-.  Illustrated;  review  questions; 
glossary. 

iii 


TYPOGRAPHIC  TECHNICAL  SERIES  for  APPRENTICES 


PART  III — Imposition  and  Stonework 

24.  Locking  Forms  for  the  Job  Press      .        By  Frank  S.  Henry 

Things  the  apprentice  should  know  about  locking  up  small  forms,  and 
about  general  work  on  the  stone.    Illustrated;  review  questions;  glossary. 

25.  Preparing  Forms  for  the  Cylinder  Press  By  Frank  S.  Henry 

Pamphlet  and  catalog  imposition;  margins;  fold  marks,  etc.  Methods  of 
handling  type  forms  and  electrotype  forms.  Illustrated;  review  questions; 
glossary. 

PART  lY—Presswork 

26.  Making  Ready  on  Platen  Presses     .  By  T.  G.  McGrew 

The  essential  parts  of  a  press  and  their  functions;  distinctive  features  of 
commonly  used  machines.  Preparing  the  tympan,  regulating  the 
impression,  underlaying  and  overlaying,  setting  gauges,  and  other 
details  explained.     Illustrated;  review  questions;  glossary. 

27.  Cylinder  Presswork By  T.  G.  McGrew 

Preparing  the  press;  adjustment  of  bed  and  cylinder,  form  rollers,  ink 
fountain,  grippers  and  delivery  systems.  Underlaying  and  overlaying; 
modern  overlay  methods.     Illustrated;  review  questions;  glossary. 

28.  Pressroom  Hints  and  Helps       .       .    By  Charles  L.  Dunton 

Describing  some  practical  methods  of  pressroom  work,  with  directions 
and  useful  information  relating  to  a  variety  of  printing-press  problems. 
87  pp.;  176  review  questions. 

29.  Reproductive  Processes  of  the  Graphic  Arts    By  A.  W.  Elson 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  distinctive  features  of  the  relief,  the 
intaglio,  and  the  planographic  processes  of  printing.  84  pp.;  illustrated; 
100  review  questions;  glossary. 

PART  V — Pamphlet  and  Book  Binding 

30.  Pamphlet  Binding        •       .       .      By  Bancroft  L.  Goodwin 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  various  operations  employed  in 
binding  pamphlets  and  other  work  in  the  bindery.  Illustrated;  review 
questions;  glossary. 

31.  Book  Binding By  John  J.  Pleger 

Practical  information  about  the  usual  operations  in  binding  books; 
folding;  gathering,  collating,  sewing,  forwarding,  finishing.  Case  making 
and  cased-in  books.  Hand  work  and  machine  work.  Job  and  blank- 
book  binding.     Illustrated;  review  questions;  glossary. 

PART  VI — Correct  Literary  Composition 

32.  Word  Study  and  English  Grammar  By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  primer  of  information  about  words,  their  relations,  and  their  uses. 
68  pp.;  84  review  questions;  glossary. 

33.  Punctuation By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  marks  of  punctuation  and  their  use, 
both  grammatically  and  typographically.  56  pp.;  59  review  questions; 
glossary. 

iv 


TYPOGRAPHIC  TECHNICAL  SERIES  for  APPRENTICES 


PART  VI  (continued) — Correct  Literary  Composition 

34.  Capitals By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  primer  of  information  about  capitalisal  ion,  with  some  practical  I 
graphic  hints  as  to  the  use  of  capitals,     is  pp.;  92  review   questions; 

glossary. 

35.  Division  of  Words        ....        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

Kulos  for  the  division  of  words  at  the  ends  of  lines,  with  remarks  on 
spelling,  syllabication  and  pronunciation.      12  pp.;  70  review  questions. 

36.  Compound  Words        .       .        .        .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  study  of  the  principles  of  compounding,  the  components  "t  com- 
pounds, and  the  use  of  the  hyphen.     34  pp.;  62  review   questions. 

37.  Abbreviations  and  Signs     .       .       .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  primer  of  information  about  abbreviations  ami  sii:ns  with  classified 
lists  of  those  in  most  common  use.    58  pp.;  32  review  questions. 

38.  The  Uses  of  Italic         .       .        .        .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  history  and  uses  of  italic  letters, 
31  pp.;  37  review  questions. 

39.  Proofreading By  Arnold  Le vitas 

The  technical  phases  of  the  proofreader's  work;  reading,  marking, 
revising,  etc.;  methods  of  handling  proofs  and  copy.  Illustrated  by 
examples.    59  pp.;  09  review  questions;  glossary. 

40.  Preparation  of  Printers'  Copy     .        .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

Suixtrestions  for  authors,  editors,  and  all  who  are  engaged  in  preparing 
copy  for  the  composing  room.    3G  pp.;  67  review  questions. 

41.  Printers'  Manual  of  Style   . 

A  reference  compilation  of  approved  rules,  usages,  and  suggesl  ions 
relating  to  uniformity  in  punctuation,  capitalization,  abbreviations, 
numerals,  and  kindred  features  of  composition. 

42.  The  Printer's  Dictionary     .       .       .       .    By  A.  A.  Stewart 

A  handbook  of  definitions  and  miscellaneous  information  aboul  various 
processes  of  printing,  alphabetically  arranged.  Technical  terms  ex- 
plained.   Illustrated. 

PART  VII — Design,  Color,  and  Lettering 

43.  Applied  Design  for  Printers        .        .        .  By  Harry  L.  ( rage 

A  handbook  of  the  principles  of  arrangemenl ,  \\  it  li  brief  comment  on  t  be 
periods  of  design  which  have  most  influenced  printing  Treats  "t  har- 
monv,  balance,  proportion,  and  rhythm;  motion;  symmetry  and  variety ; 
ornament,  esthetic  and  symbolic.  37  illustration-;  10  review  questions; 
glossary ;  bibliography. . 

44.  Elements  of  Typographic  Design       .        .  By  Harry  L.  G 

Applications  of  the  principle-  of  decorative  design.  Building  material 
of  typography:  paper,  types,  ink,  decorations  and  illustrations.    Handling 

of  shapes.     Design  oi  complete  I k,  treating  each  pai 

commercial  forms  and  single  units.     Illustrations;   review  questions. 

glossary;  bibliography. 

V 


TYPOGRAPHIC  TECHNICAL  SERIES  for  APPRENTICES 

PART  VII  (continued) — Design,  Color,  and  Lettering 

45.  Rudiments  of  Color  in  Printing  .       .       .By  Harry  L.  Gage 

Use  of  color:  for  decoration  of  black  and  white,  for  broad  poster  effect, 
in  combinations  of  two,  three,  or  more  printings  with  process  engravings. 
Scientific  nature  of  color,  physical  and  chemical.  Terms  in  which  color 
may  be  discussed:  hue,  value,  intensity.  Diagrams  in  color,  scales  and 
combinations.  Color  theory  of  process  engraving.  Experiments  with 
color.  Illustrations  in  full  color,  and  on  various  papers.  Review  ques- 
tions; glossary;  bibliography. 

46.  Lettering  in  Typography      .       .       .       .By  Harry  L.  Gage 

Printer's  use  of  lettering:  adaptability  and  decorative  effect.  Develop- 
ment of  historic  writing  and  lettering  and  its  influence  on  type  design. 
Classification  of  general  forms  in  lettering.  Application  of  design  to 
lettering.  Drawing  for  reproduction.  Fully  illustrated;  review  ques- 
tions; glossary;  bibliography. 

47.  Typographic  Design  in  Advertising   .       .  By  Harry  L.  Gage 

The  printer's  function  in  advertising.  Precepts  upon  which  advertising 
is  based.  Printer's  analysis  of  his  copy.  Emphasis,  legibility,  attention, 
color.  Method  of  studying  advertising  typography.  Illustrations; 
review  questions;  glossary;  bibliography. 

48.  Making  Dummies  and  Layouts .       .       .  By  Harry  L.  Gage 

A  layout:  the  architectural  plan.  A  dummy:  the  imitation  of  a  proposed 
final  effect.  Use  of  dummy  in  sales  work.  Use  of  layout.  Function  of 
layout  man.  Binding  schemes  for  dummies.  Dummy  envelopes. 
Illustrations;  review  questions;  glossary;  bibliography. 

PART  VIII— History  of  Printing 

49.  Books  Before  Typography  .       .       .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  invention  of  the  alphabet  and  the 
history  of  bookmaking  up  to  the  invention  of  movable  types.  62  pp.; 
illustrated;  64  review  questions. 

50.  The  Invention  of  Typography     .       .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  brief  sketch  of  the  invention  of  printing  and  how  it  came  about. 
64  pp. ;  62  review  questions. 

51.  History  of  Printing— Part  I        .       .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  primer  of  information  about  the  beginnings  of  printing,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  book,  the  development  of  printers'  materials,  and  the  work 
of  the  great  pioneers.    63  pp. ;  55  review  questions. 

52.  History  of  Printing— Part  II      .       .       By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  brief  sketch  of  the  economic  conditions  of  the  printing  industry  from 
1450  to  1789,  including  government  regulations,  censorship,  internal 
conditions  and  industrial  relations.    94  pp. ;  128  review  questions. 

53.  Printing  in  England     .       .       .       .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  short  history  of  printing  in  England  from  Caxton  to  the  present  time. 
89  pp. ;  65  review  questions. 

54.  Printing  in  America     .       .        .       .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  brief  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  newspaper,  and  some  notes  on 
publishers  who  have  especially  contributed  to  printing.  98  pp.;  84 
review  questions. 

55.  Type  and  Presses  in  America    .       .        By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  brief  historical  sketch  of  the  development  of  type  casting  and  press 
building  in  the  United  States.    52  pp.;  61  review  questions. 

vi 


TYPOGRAPHIC  TECHNICAL  SERIES  for  APPRENTICES 


PART  IX — Cost  Finding  and  Accounting 

56.  Elements  of  Cost  in  Printing      .        .       By  Henry  P.  Porter 

The  Standard  Cost- Finding  Forms  and  their  uses.  What  they  should 
show.  How  to  utilize  the  information  they  give.  Review  question*. 
Glossary. 

57.  Use  of  a  Cost  System  ...       By  Henry  P.  Porter 

The  Standard  Cost-Finding  Forms  and  their  uses.  What  they  should 
show.  How  to  utilize  the  information  they  give.  Review  questions. 
Glossary. 

58.  The  Printer  as  a  Merchant        .       .       By  Henry  P.  Porter 

The  selection  and  purchase  of  materials  and  supplies  for  printing.  The 
relation  of  the  cost  of  raw  material  and  the  selling  price  of  the  finished 
product.     Review  questions.     Glossary. 

59.  Fundamental  Principles  of  Estimating     By  Henry  P.  Porter 

The  estimator  and  his  work;  forms  to  use;  general  rules  for  estimating. 
Review  questions.    Glossary. 

60.  Estimating  and  Selling        ...       By  Henry  P.  Porter 

An  insight  into"the  methods  used  in  making  estimates,  and  their  relation 
to  selling.     Review  questions.     Glossary. 

61.  Accounting  for  Printers       .        .        .        By  Henry  P.  Porter 

A  brief  outline  of  an  accounting  system  for  printers;  necessary  books  and 
accessory  records.     Review  questions.     Glossary. 

PART  X — Miscellaneous 

62.  Health,  Sanitation,  and  Safety  .       .       By  Henry  P.  Porter 

Hygiene  in  the  printing  trade;  a  study  of  conditions  old  and  new;  practical 
suggestions  for  improvement;  protective  appliances  and  rules  for  safety* 

63.  Topical  Index By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  book  of  reference  covering  the  topics  treated  in  the  Typographia 
Technical  Series,  alphabetically  arranged. 

64.  Courses  of  Study By  F.  W.  Hamilton 

A  guidebook  for  teachers,  with  outlines  and  suggestions  for  classroom  and 
shop  work. 


Vll 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


THIS  series  of  Typographic  Text-books  is  the  result  of  the 
splendid  co-operation  of  a  large  number  of  firms  and  in- 
dividuals engaged  in  the  printing  business  and  its  allied  industries 
in  the  United  States  of  America. 

The  Committee  on  Education  of  the  United  Typothetae  of 
America,  under  whose  auspices  the  books  have  been  prepared  and 
published,  acknowledges  its  indebtedness  for  the  generous  assist- 
ance rendered  by  the  many  authors,  printers,  and  others  identified 
with  this  work. 

While  due  acknowledgment  is  made  on  the  title  and  copyright 
pages  of  those  contributing  to  each  book,  the  Committee  never- 
theless felt  that  a  group  list  of  co-operating  firms  would  be  of 
interest. 

The  following  list  is  not  complete,  as  it  includes  only  those  who 
have  co-operated  in  the  production  of  a  portion  of  the  volumes, 
constituting  the  first  printing.  As  soon  as  the  entire  list  of  books 
comprising  the  Typographic  Technical  Series  has  been  completed 
(which  the  Committee  hopes  will  be  at  an  early  date),  the  full  list 
will  be  printed  in  each  volume. 

The  Committee  also  desires  to  acknowledge  its  indebtedness  to 

the  many  subscribers  to  this  Series  who  have  patiently  awaited  its 

publication. 

Committee  on  Education, 

United  Typothetae  of  America. 

Henry  P.  Porter,  Chairman, 
E.  Lawrence  Fell, 
A.  M.  Glossbrenner, 
J.  Clyde  Oswald, 
Toby  Rubovits. 

Frederick  W.  Hamilton,  Education  Director. 


Vlll 


CONTRIBUTORS 

For  Composition  and  Electrotypes 

Isaac  H.  Blanch ard  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

S.  H.  Burbank  <fc  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

J.  S.  Cushing  &  Co.,  Norwood,  Mass. 

The  DeVinne  Press,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

R.  R.  Donnelley  &  Sons  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Geo.  H.  Ellis  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Evans-Winter-Hebb,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Franklin  Printing  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

F.  H.  Gilson  Company,  Boston,  Mass. 

Stephen  Greene  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

W.  F.  Hall  Printing  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

McCalla  &  Co.  Inc.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Patteson  Press,  New  York,  New  York 

The  Plimpton  Press,  Norwood,  Mass. 

Poole  Bros.,  Chicago,  111. 

Edward  Stern  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Stone  Printing  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Roanoke,  Va. 

C.  D.  Traphagen,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

The  University  Press,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
For  Composition 

Boston  Typothetae  School  of  Printing,  Boston,  Mass. 

William  F.  Fell  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Kalkhoff  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Oxford-Print,  Boston,  Mass. 

Tom'  Pvibovits,  Chicago,  111. 
For  Electrotypes 

Blomgren  Brothers  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Flower  Steel  Electrotyping  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

C.  J.  Peters  &  Son  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Royal  Electrotype  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

H.  C.  Whitcomb  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
For  Engravings 

Amkrican  Type  Founders  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

C.  B.  CoTrRELL  &  Sons  Co.,  Westerly,  R.  I. 

Golding  Manufacturing  Co.,  Franklin,  Mass. 

Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Inland  Printer  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Lanston  Monotype  Machine  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Mergenthaler  Linotype  Company,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Geo.  H.  Morrill  Co.,  Norwood.  Mass. 

Oswald  Publishing  Co.,  New  York,  X.  Y. 

The  Printing  Art,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

B.  D.  Rising  Paper  Company,  Bousatonic,  Ma 

The  Vandercook  Peess,  Chicago,  III. 
For  Book  Paper 

American  Writing  Paper  Co.,  Bolyoke,  Mass. 

West  Virginia  Pulp  A:  Paper  Co.,  Mechanicville,  X.  i . 

ix 


RETURN       LIBRARY  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 
TOm*       2  South  Hall 


LOAN  PERIOD  1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  D 


DUE   AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


DEC  1 3  1384 

OtC  1  5  1987 

MAY  2  3  1990 

FORM  NO.  DO  1 8,  45m,  6'76  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALI 

BERKELEY,  ( 


